Lecture notes: Diplomacy

• all sharing in the same court culture

Johann Daniel Schöpflin, Diplomatic Academy in Strasbourg, in the 1730s

The curriculum …

• There they studied international law, statistics, and history and forged bonds that would persist in their later lives
• many students became prominent statesmen — Talleyrand, Metternich
• all the Russian diplomats in Vienna, 1815, had studied here

Personal representatives of the king

• not necessarily represented by the king’s own subjects
• Hugo Grotius was ambassador for Sweden

Often military men

• no actual training
• wars as a “continuation of diplomacy by other means”

The first manuals on diplomacy

Callières, On the Manner of Negotiating with Princes, 1716

Antoine Pecquet strongly associated with the culture of the courts where they were stationed

The significance of congresses

The persistence of the culture

• persisted until recently
• foreign service exam was an interview in French with
• quite a gay culture too

Whitelocke in Stockholm

• “When Bulstrude Whitelocke, the ambassador from Oliver Cromwell’s England, arrived in Stockholm in 1653, Queen Kristina was alarmed since the Puritans were famous, even in Sweden, for their disapproval of the terpsichorean arts. “Is dancing prohibited in England?” the Queen asked the ambassador when they first met. “Some there do not approve it,” Whitelocke admitted, “but it is not prohibited by any law, and many there do use it.” The queen was much relieved when Whitelocke assured her that he had learned how to dance as a lawyer at the Inns of Court in London, and that he only objected to balls if they took place on Sundays.”

Partying with the Portuguese

“But the delegations that assembled in Utrecht also had time to enjoy themselves. In fact, during the year they spent together negotiating there was no end to banquets, balls, theater plays, and musical performances of all kinds. One of the most talked about occasions was a party organized by the Portuguese delegation on February 27, 1713. Among the guests were no fewer than fifty ambassadors and their staff — “representatives of all the sovereign states of Europe” — and the party lasted all of three days. The first evening the Portuguese had prepared a sumptuous banquet in a hall built for the purpose in the garden of their residence. Noteworthy features of the multi-course dinner were the candied oranges which looked perfectly life-like, and the Japanese plates on which the dessert was served. Afterwards the ambassadors were treated to a theater performance, and when they returned home at the end of the evening the canal outside was illuminated by torches. Since the first night’s entertainment only had included men, the second night was organized by the ladies. The wives, mistresses and daughters of the diplomats took part, but since their number was insufficient an additional two hundred women were invited. They were all ladies “of an enchanting magnificence.” In order to avoid diplomatic incidents, the Portuguese hosts convinced a young Danish diplomat to pick a dancing-partner, and before the other guests quite knew what had happened, the ball had commenced. The ambassadors danced until five o’clock in the morning, only interrupted by a midnight buffet. As for the third day, it featured a masked ball. Since this was a form of entertainment unknown to the Dutch, it was not clear beforehand how it would turn out, and it was also difficult for the delegations to find the right costumes. But everything worked out well in the end. Everyone looked gorgeous, especially the women who took the opportunity to dress up in assorted exotic attire. Delighted, if also quite exhausted, the ambassadors thanked their hosts, and returned home.”

Incident in Tower Wharf, Sept 30, 1661

The Diary of Samuel Pepys

The grand embassy of Peter the Great

Russia as a traditional Asian kingdom

• a center where foreigners came to pay tributes
• kowtowing and all that

never sent resident ambassadors abroad

• constant complaints about the temporary ambassadors
• they drank too much and destroyed things
• had no interest in local culture

Peter the Great

• a Westernizer
• cf. traditional conflict between Slavophiles and Westernizers

modernize Russia

• moved the capital to what became “Saint Petersburg”
• missions to Europe from the 1680s onward
• some stayed a very long time
• learning all kinds of things — but ship-building important

Peter himself went — in disguise, 1697-98

• come back with European conceptions — changed the court dress, cut their beards

Russia integrated into the system of diplomacy

• much more sophisticated diplomats — often Peter’s friends
• resident ambassadors
• no more kowtowing

Byzantine diplomacy

peace on the frontier

Diplomacy:

• Establishing and maintaining diplomatic relations with barbarian leaders, including negotiating treaties and alliances, exchanging gifts, and arranging marriages between Byzantine nobles and barbarian leaders.

example 1:

• Byzantine practice of offering subsidies and gifts to frontier peoples in exchange for their cooperation in defending their shared borders and providing military assistance when needed. This approach allowed the Byzantine Empire to maintain a level of control and influence over its border regions without the need for direct military intervention or occupation.

example 2:

• Dissatisfied pretenders, defeated candidates for kingship, were welcomed at Constantinople. Thus there were generally some princes, thoroughly under Byzantine influence, who at a favorable opportunity could be imposed on their compatriots. Throughout Justinian’s reign there was a constant influx of foreign potentates to Constantinople, and he overwhelmed them with attentions, pompous ceremonies and valuable presents.

Divide and rule:

• Exploiting rivalries and tensions among barbarian groups to prevent them from uniting against the Byzantine Empire. This often involved supporting one faction against another, thus keeping the barbarian groups weakened and dependent on Byzantine support.

example:

• By supporting the Lombards against the Gepidae, Justinian prevented the Gepidae from becoming too powerful and threatening the Byzantine Empire’s interests.
• Justinian I used the Avars to counterbalance the Huns’ influence in the region, preventing either group from becoming a significant threat to the Byzantine Empire.

Military power:

• Demonstrating Byzantine military strength to deter barbarian aggression and secure borders. This could involve military campaigns, border fortifications, or stationing troops in strategic locations.

Cultural influence:

• Encouraging the adoption of Byzantine culture, religion, and political practices among barbarian groups. This helped to foster a sense of shared identity and common values, making it easier for the Byzantine Empire to exert its influence over these groups.

this is how it worked:

• In the land which he undertakes to convert, the missionary endeavors to gain the confidence of the king and influential persons, and makes it a special object to enlist the sympathies of the women. If the king hesitates, it is suggested that he should visit New Rome. The attraction of this idea is irresistible, and when he comes to the capital, the pomp of his reception, the honors shown him by the emperor, and the splendor of the religious ceremonies overcome his last scruples. Thenceforward imperial influence is predominant in his dominion; priests become his advisers; a bishop is consecrated, dependent on the patriarch of Constantinople; and the barbarians are transformed by the penetration of Byzantine ideas.

example:

By the application of these various means, Justinian established Roman influence in Nubia, Ethiopia and South Arabia, in the Caucasian regions, and on the coast of the Euxine. The conversion of the Lazi (of Colchis) was specially notable, and that of the Sabiri, who were politically important because they commanded the eastern pass of the Caucasus known as the Caspian Gates. It will be observed that the great prestige of the Empire was one of the conditions of the success of this policy.

Assimilation:

• Incorporating barbarian warriors and leaders into the Byzantine military and political structure. This helped to secure the loyalty of these individuals and their followers, while also benefiting the empire through their military prowess and local knowledge.

example 1:

• More important potentates were invested with a costlier dress. In these investitures precedence was carefully observed. The chiefs thus received a definite position in the Empire, and the rich robes, with the ceremony, appealed to their vanity. In some cases they were admitted to posts in the official hierarchy,—being created Patricians, Masters of soldiers, &c.

example 2:

• Another mode of Winning influence was to marry barbarian princes to Roman wives, and rear their sons in the luxury of the palace.

Dragomans

• dragoman – tercüman