Lecture notes: Competitive systems

The taifa kingdoms of Muslim Spain

Taifa kingdoms, 1080

The first image showcases a historically accurate portrayal of the court. The lavishly decorated palace interior is adorned with intricate Islamic geometric patterns and arches. The Taifa king, dressed in opulent Andalusian attire, presides over his court, surrounded by advisors, courtiers, and musicians.

The second image offers a more artistic interpretation, emphasizing the grandeur of the palace with its ornate decorations, lush carpets, and shimmering chandeliers. The king holds court with dignitaries and scholars, while musicians serenade the gathering with traditional instruments.

The first image provides a historically accurate representation of a battle, with warriors in Andalusian armor engaged in combat. The backdrop showcases the landscapes of the Iberian Peninsula, punctuated by fortresses and watchtowers.

The second image offers a more artistic interpretation, capturing the intensity of a Taifa-era battle. The presence of elephants, siege engines, and archers adds layers of complexity to the scene, while the overcast sky sets a dramatic tone.

In Muslim Spain, or Al-Andalus

• following the dissolution of the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba — between 1009 and 1031 CE
• political fragmentation and conflicts
• independent Muslim principalities scattered across modern-day Portugal and Spain
• but also cultural flourishing

“taifa”

• “faction” or “party”
• we get — “the party kings”

The Ummayad caliphate falls apart

• regions are turning towards each other
• the taifas emerge from these conflicts between provinces

Get together to agree on inviting the Almoravids — 1086 CE

• the first African invasion of Europe
• more puritanical interpretation of Islam
• the Almohads were the second

The invitation

• Faced with this external threat and unable to effectively counter it individually, some of the Taifa rulers did indeed invite the Almoravids, a Berber Muslim dynasty from North Africa, to assist them in fighting against the Christian forces. The Almoravids initially came as allies but eventually took over most of Al-Andalus, effectively ending the rule of the Taifa kingdoms
• The most pressing concern was the military advance of Alfonso VI. His capture of Toledo was a significant blow to Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula and served as a catalyst for action. Faced with this immediate threat, some of the more powerful and influential Taifa kings, such as Al-Mu’tamid of Seville, took the initiative to invite the Almoravids.
• Some taifa kingdoms worried about the invitation — the Almoravids were stricter in their beliefs — they worried that the religous and ethnic diversity would be undermined

Third Taifa Period (early 13th century):

• Emergence: After the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, the Almohads began to lose their grip on the Iberian Peninsula, leading to another fragmentation into Taifas.
• Duration: This period was even shorter than the second, lasting only a few decades. By the mid-13th century, most of the Iberian Peninsula was under Christian rule, except for the Kingdom of Granada, which survived until 1492.
• Characteristics: The Third Taifa kingdoms were even weaker and more fragmented than during the Second Taifa Period. They existed largely as vassals to the Christian kingdoms and were often involved in complex alliances and tributary relationships with their Christian neighbors.

Political structure

The rulers were often Berbers, Slavs, Arabs, or Muladies (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin)

• The taifas were relatively autonomous entities, often with their own legal, military, and economic systems

Warfare

• There was significant competition and warfare between the various kingdoms, though alliances, often temporary, were also struck

Notable Taifa Kingdoms:

Zaragoza

Seville

Cultural flourishing

The Taifa courts

• centers of cultural excellence, fostering the growth of various fields of knowledge
• poets, scientists, and scholars thrived in this conducive environment
• the rich cultural and intellectual legacy of Al-Andalus

Religious tolerance

• The taifas, particularly those in the south, were noted for a certain degree of religious tolerance, though this varied by time and place

Great architectural heritage

The Reconquista

since they couldn’t unite, it was easier for the Christians to defeat them

although the taifa structure was important for explaining the reconquista

• alliances are formed in complicated patterns
• to keep more powerful Christian kingdoms at bay, some taifas paid parias (tributes), thus contributing to the coffers and military capabilities of kingdoms like León, Castile, and Aragón

The Moorish castle of Silves, Portugal

Perhaps one of the most well-preserved examples of Taifa architecture, the Aljafería Palace was built during the reign of Al-Muqtadir as a fortified palace complex. The palace is notable for its intricate stucco work and arches.

Perhaps one of the most well-preserved examples of Taifa architecture, the Aljafería Palace was built during the reign of Al-Muqtadir as a fortified palace complex. The palace is notable for its intricate stucco work and arches.

Perhaps one of the most well-preserved examples of Taifa architecture, the Aljafería Palace was built during the reign of Al-Muqtadir as a fortified palace complex. The palace is notable for its intricate stucco work and arches.

Originally built as a minaret for the Great Mosque of Seville during the Almohad period, the lower sections incorporate elements from the Taifa period. The Giralda was later converted into a bell tower for the Seville Cathedral

Castle of Baños de la Encina, Jaén

These public baths date back to the Taifa period and are one of the few remaining examples of Islamic public baths in Spain.

The Yoruba city-states, 1200-1800 CE

Illustration showcasing the rich history of the Yoruba city-states in West Africa. The ancient city of Ile-Ife stands majestically in the background, with intricate Yoruba sculptures made of terracotta, brass, and wood displayed prominently. A prominent Oba, adorned in royal regalia, sits on his throne, surrounded by nobles and guild members. In the foreground, Yoruba people engage in agricultural activities, trade, and craftwork. Traditional Yoruba musicians play instruments, while dancers move to the rhythm, celebrating their vibrant culture.

Artistic representation of the Yoruba city-states during their zenith. The powerful Oyo Empire is depicted with its formidable cavalry and structured administration. The landscape is dotted with Yoruba architecture, including palaces and religious shrines. Priests engage in Ifa divination, while worshippers pay homage to Orishas at a sacred temple. Trade routes bustle with activity, connecting the Yoruba states to other parts of West Africa. The scene captures the essence of Yoruba political organization, economic systems, and religious practices.

The second image provides an artistic representation of a religious ceremony in the Yoruba city-states, highlighting the reverence of the ceremony, the significance of the Orishas, and the Yoruba’s deep connection to the divine.

Here are two illustrations showcasing the female warriors of Dahomey, also known as the Dahomey Amazons, in battle. These elite warriors were renowned for their combat skills and played a pivotal role in the military history of the Dahomey Kingdom.

Here are the renditions of the Benin bronzes as they might appear at the British Museum. The images showcase the intricate details and craftsmanship of the bronzes, capturing their historical and cultural significance.

City-states that emerged between the 12th and 14th centuries in what is now Nigeria

• inhabited by the Yoruba people

Political structure

• centered around a capital city or town and was ruled by a hereditary king, known as an oba
• hereditary monarchy with the oba (king) at the helm. The oba was supported by a hierarchy of chiefs and councilors who aided in the administration of the kingdom
• Council of nobles

Selection of the oba

• Generally, the king is chosen from among the royal family by a council of kingmakers, which often includes high-ranking chiefs and sometimes religious leaders. The candidate usually has to fulfill certain criteria, including lineage, moral character, and sometimes even physical attributes.
• Once selected, the new Oba undergoes a series of rituals and ceremonies, which may include seclusion, ritual cleansing, and the learning of sacred songs, histories, and laws. These rites serve both a religious and a political function, preparing the new king for his role as both a temporal and a spiritual leader.

Economic structure

• communal relations alongside a distinctly expressed social and economic inequality between ordinary commune members and the ruling elite
• slavery and the slave trade played significant roles in the economic and social life of these kingdoms

Guilds were important

Craft Guilds:

• These included blacksmiths, weavers, potters, and carvers. Each craft guild had its own set of rules, initiation rites, and training processes.

Trade Guilds:

• These were composed of traders who often dealt in specific types of goods. They could be involved in both local and long-distance trade.

Religious Guilds:

• Some guilds were organized around religious functions, such as the guilds of Ifa diviners.

Warrior Guilds:

• In some Yoruba states, especially those with a strong military tradition like Oyo, there were guilds for warriors.

Functions:

Standardization:

• Guilds helped in maintaining quality and standardization of products. They often had specific techniques and secrets that were closely guarded.

Training:

• Guilds were responsible for the training and apprenticeship of new members. This ensured the transmission of skills from one generation to the next.

Economic Support:

• Being part of a guild often provided economic benefits, including access to markets and credit facilities.

Dispute Resolution:

• Guilds often had their own internal mechanisms for resolving disputes among members.

Political Influence:

• In many Yoruba city-states, guilds had considerable political influence. They could act as pressure groups and had roles in the governance of the city-state.

Ceremonial Roles:

• Guilds often had specific roles in religious and royal ceremonies. For example, the guild of blacksmiths might be responsible for crafting ceremonial objects.

Mutual Aid:

• Guilds provided a support network for their members, offering assistance in times of illness, death, or other crises.

Social and Cultural Impact:

• Identity: Membership in a guild was often a significant part of an individual’s social identity.
• Cultural Transmission: Through their training and initiation rites, guilds were instrumental in the transmission of cultural values and practices.
• Innovation: The competitive yet collaborative nature of guilds often led to innovation in techniques and designs.

Cultural unity

• Each city-state was a largely autonomous entity but shared linguistic, cultural, and religious traits
• Traditional Yoruba religion is polytheistic, featuring a pantheon of deities known as “Orishas.” These deities are intermediaries between humans and a supreme god, often referred to as Olodumare or Olorun
• Ifa divination, an intricate system of divination that uses an extensive corpus of texts and mathematical formulas, is a key religious practice.

Notable example

• maybe some 40 states altogether

Ife-ife

• Ife was recognized as the cultural and religious heartland of the Yoruba people
• believed to be the site where the gods descended to earth, with the deity Oduduwa, revered as the first divine king of the Yoruba people, establishing the kingdom of Ife

Oyo

• gradually emerged as a dominant political force among the Yoruba kingdoms from the 15th century onward
• the Oyo empire
• Perhaps the most powerful and well-known Yoruba kingdom, Oyo had a highly organized government and exerted influence over a large area.
• The empire’s roots trace back to Oranyan (also known as Oranmiyan), the last prince of the Yoruba Kingdom of Ile-Ife
• Oyo’s influence extended west to the Gold Coast and east to the Niger River
• Oyo maintained a tributary relationship with many other Yoruba city-states and even non-Yoruba regions.

Ijebu:

• Known for its military strength and economic power, particularly in trade.

Egba:

• Originally part of the Oyo Empire, Egba became independent and established its own kingdom centered around the city of Abeokuta.

Owu:

• Another kingdom that was part of the Oyo Empire before becoming independent.

Ketu:

• Located to the west of the Yoruba heartland, Ketu was another significant Yoruba kingdom.

Sabe:

• Located in what is now the Republic of Benin, Sabe was a Yoruba kingdom that had significant influence in the region.

Colonial invasion

The beginning of the 19th century saw the disintegration of Oyo into many small, independent city-states

• By the mid-19th century, the gradual seizure of the Yoruba kingdoms by Great Britain began
• incorporation of these territories into the British colony and protectorate of Southern Nigeria in 1906

The Valley of Mexico, 1200-1500 CE

A depiction of the political organization of the Valley of Mexico, specifically showcasing Tenochtitlan. The scene captures the ruler or ‘tlatoani’ in his court, surrounded by nobility and advisors, with the backdrop of a massive pyramid.

An illustration of the socio-economic structure, portraying a bustling market scene in Tlatelolco. Commoners can be seen trading various goods, and in the background, the chinampas or ‘floating gardens’ are visible, with farmers attending to their crops.

The second image highlights the chinampas’ drainage system in the city-state of Chalco, where farmers are seen actively fertilizing the land.

The first image depicts the creation of chinampas in the community of Xochimilco with farmers building the ‘floating gardens’. The background is filled with colorful buildings, people, and canals.

This image portrays Aztec and Tlaxcalan warriors facing off in a ritualistic manner at a sacred site called cuauhtlalli. An incense-burning pyre of paper marks the start of the war. The focus is on individual combat abilities, emphasizing the importance of personal prowess. The majestic Aztec city of Tenochtitlan can be seen in the background.

This illustration depicts Aztec warriors, distinguished by their ornate armor, engaging in close combat with warriors from Cholula. The emphasis is on the use of the macuahuitl. Spectators, including Aztec nobility, surround the battlefield, watching the ritualistic warfare. The silhouette of a temple dedicated to Huitzilopochtli can be seen in the distance, symbolizing the religious significance of the wars.

Altepetl

• city-state in the valley of Mexico
• certainly in the dozen, and many up to 100

Nahuatl language

• “ātl” (water) and “tepētl” (mountain)
• signifying the integral relationship between the natural environment and political organization within Nahua culture

The more prominent ones

Culhuacan

Azcapotzalco

Texcoco

Political Structure

ethnically-based political entity typically governed by a singular dynastic ruler known as a tlatoani

• constituted of smaller units called calpolli
• its own jurisdiction, origin story
• residents identified themselves by the name of their Altepetl rather than by broader ethnic or national identities

Central temple

• dedicated to a patron god particular to the identity of the Altepetl

and a central market

• They were generally multiethnic, with communal cohesion often maintained through territorial exclusiveness

Economic aspects

Stratification

• Society was stratified, with nobility, commoners, serfs, and slaves. The nobility were usually the political and military leaders, while commoners were engaged in agriculture, craftsmanship, and trade.

Economy

• The economy was largely agricultural, relying on a system of chinampas or “floating gardens” for crop cultivation. Markets were essential to economic life; the most famous was the market of Tlatelolco in the altepetl of the same name, which later became part of Tenochtitlan.

Religion and Cosmology

Polytheistic

• Religion was polytheistic and involved a complex calendar system, numerous festivals, and the construction of massive pyramids as religious and civic centers.

Human Sacrifice

• Central to the religious practice was the offering of human sacrifices, usually prisoners of war, to the gods, particularly Huitzilopochtli, the sun god and patron of Tenochtitlan.

Cultural Achievements

Writing and Literature

• The Aztecs used a system of pictorial writing that was not entirely phonetic but conveyed complex ideas, historical narratives, and calendrical information. Texcoco was known as a center of learning and the arts.

Architecture

• Architectural achievements include the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan and the complex system of canals and chinampas that supported the city’s agriculture.

Military aspects

Objectives:

1. Tribute and Resources: One of the primary objectives was to gain control over resources and to exact tribute from conquered altepetl.
2. Political Dominance: Establishing or reinforcing hegemony over other city-states was another key goal.
3. Religious Reasons: Wars were often fought to capture prisoners for religious sacrifices, a practice particularly prevalent among the Aztecs.

Planning and Strategy:

1. Alliances: Altepetl often formed alliances for mutual benefit. For example, the Triple Alliance between Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan was instrumental in the formation of the Aztec Empire.
2. Espionage: Spies were used to gather information about enemy defenses, plans, and movements.
3. Calendar: The timing of wars often had religious significance, determined by the ritual calendar.

Military Organization:

1. Hierarchy: Armies were usually organized hierarchically, with a tlatoani (ruler) or a high-ranking military officer at the top.
2. Units: Soldiers were often organized into units based on their city-states, clans, or other social organizations.
3. Special Forces: Elite warriors like the Jaguar and Eagle warriors had special roles, often serving as shock troops or in capturing prisoners.

Tactics and Weapons:

1. Ambush and Surprise: These were commonly used tactics, especially in the rugged terrains of Mesoamerica.
2. Siege Warfare: While not as common as in other parts of the world, siege tactics were employed, especially in conflicts involving larger city-states.
3. Weapons: Common weapons included obsidian-bladed swords (macuahuitl), slings, spears, and atlatls (spear-throwers).
4. Ritualized combat — later: “flower wars”

Aftermath:

1. Tribute: Conquered altepetl were often required to pay tribute to the victors.
2. Sacrifice: Prisoners of war were frequently taken for the purpose of human sacrifice in religious ceremonies.
3. Political Reorganization: The political landscape would often be reorganized, with puppet rulers installed or territories annexed.

Triple alliance, 1428

Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan

• they gradually took over and came to dominate the others

Under the Aztec empire

Local rulers of Altepetl retained control over taxation and land distribution

• in exchange for their submission, military support, and tribute payments
• occasional rebellion and efforts by imperial powers to deepen control over Altepetl

Spanish colonialism

Spanish invasion in 1519

• the Aztec Empire comprised approximately 450 Altepetl

the Spanish exploited existing political divisions among various Altepetl and the Aztecs

• aligning with dissident city-states to challenge the Aztec Empire

Castillo, Bernal Díaz del. The History of the Conquest of New Spain

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