International relations of people who are on the move
they are mobile
they are stateless
but historically very important
This is impossible for Western IR to discuss
“international relations” are state relations by definition
Historical interest — but also contemporary relevance
a lot of people are moving around — refugees, migrants
hundreds of millions of people
numbers vary, but they have generally gone up
Nomads of the past and nomads of the future
we need a theory of mobile politics
mobile states and mobile international relations
Questions of territoriality
borders don’t matter
home is somewhere we carry with us
if we carried out politics with us too, what would the world look like?
what would international relations look like?
Since it is not about state relations
we can imagine a world beyond the state
post-IR theory more than non-Western IR theory
Mobility today
There is no prejudice more powerful than the prejudice against people who constantly move
Historical interest –but also contemporary relevance
a lot of people are moving around — refugees, migrants
hundreds of millions of people
numbers vary, but they have generally gone up
Generally vary in relation to the world economy
the 19th century as an age of migration
The presumption was that everyone should fit in — become assimilated
many did, but this was a painful process
one generation was lost
Many did not
great increase in the number of vagrants, tramps and hobos, during the 19th century
This seems to be happening again
hunters and gatherers move in relation to the seasonal variation in the availability of game and plants. Other nomads move depending on the availability of jobs. You follow the circus as it goes on tour in the summer; move eastward in October to help out with the vendange; moor your canoe when the rivers freeze over in the winter.
Why mobility is destiny (Khanna)
The history of humanity is mobility
Climate change
Origin of mankind in Ethiopia
Out of Eden walk project
Globalization is starting
Nomadic origin
Surprisingly similarity between the members of the human species
Four kinds of geography
Natural
location and distribution of resources
changes because of climate change
future maps will change colors
Political
totally arbitary
UN moving from 54 to 200 members
decolonization and collapse of the Soviet Union
Functional
infrastructure — intentional investments
connecting people together
internet, airports, railroads
Human
how people are distributed across the planet
climate niches where people are gathering
close to rivers
These four a misaligned
the resources are in the wrong place
people are living in unlivable places
Our survival depends on realigning them
Population will decline in the future
Four scenarios for the future
on the axes of sustainability and migration
Low sustainability
The New Middle Ages — local survivalism — technological innovation won’t help us
Barbarians at the gate — mass migration and struggle for resources
High sustainability
Regional fortresses — continuation of the present — invest in their own sustainability — ward off large-scale migration
Northern light — the most positive — people resettle to the north — fluid move of people and resources
“Programmable geography”
we can map out how these four geographies interact
figure out what geographies work for human life
“Civilization 3.0”
nomadic and agricultural
industrial
mobile as needed
Political geographies are the main problem
we cannot move as we want
we are forced to stay and die rather than move and survive
The climate will not adapt to us, we must adapt to it
We can do it!
19th century
the age of nationalism
but also of migration
Climate migrants
billions of people will be moving
we can absorb these people
the most successful society are mass migration societies
2019
more than a billion people moved across borders
pandemic restrictions — regional fortresses
but the north needs more people
the climate niche is moving northward
“Climate oases”
people will move north to places which now are largely uninhabited
Siberia, Sweden
Objections
now suitable habitats overwhelmed
cultural objections
There is no end state
we have to keep on moving
and we must do so sustainable
Demands
cosmopolitan utilitarian
migration is by far the best way of redistributing resources
Technologies
mobile real estate
mobile infrastructure
popup cities
adaptive architecture
Digital technology
Young people need it the most
most people are young and in poor countries
Need to evolve from sovereignty to stewardship
We must redistribute ourselves to maximize our well-being
Mobility is the path to survival
to move is to rediscover our humanity
Q and A
NIMBYism as an obstacle
3D printed homes
Property more expensive
higher insurance cost
Generational conflict
young people in the south want to move
old people in the north hate moving
Political backlash countries
but they also need more people
fast-growing economies
fertility policies don’t work
Cities will always win
The new Hanseatic League
archipelago of cities
China
demographic problem — 1,2,4 pyramid
Asian youth are the future of the world
they will be moving
Some statistics
estimated 281 million in 2020
international migrants accounted for 3.6% of the global population in 2020
grave would have to be protected and commemorated and as such it would be an encumbrance which would fix and constrain their movements
exposed the bodies of their dead on mountain tops, to be picked apart by carrion birds
South East Asia — air burials, in trees
Places of worship
worship deities that are located in a particular place, such as a tree which they regularly visit on their journeys
place the god on top of a high mountain which can be seen from far away across the steppe
worship Tengri, the god of the blue sky. The sky, after all, is always with you.
The Band
Nomads have no neighbors; no one lives next door since there are no next doors
social ties are forged with the people who travel together, at the same time and in the same direction
includes family members and members of one’s clan
but often also extraneous people who have joined up along the way
Relations within the band are more egalitarian than sedentary societies
they cannot assemble the kinds of wealth through which sedentary people like to distinguish themselves from each other.
wealth must be movable — animals above all
shouldn’t ask a reindeer herder how many animals he has? Impolite!
the conditions of life on the road make it difficult to translate this wealth into social distinctions.
Nomadic societies have a low degree of division of labor
every member of the group is engaged in much the same project
although some specialized functions — navigating, hunting with eagles, putting up tents, ironmongery
Trust
since members of the nomadic group interact very closely, the level of trust between them is high
Asabiyyah of Ibn Haldun
to the social cohesion, group solidarity, or collective consciousness that binds people together, often based on shared values, kinship ties, or tribal affiliations
Social Cohesion and Solidarity: Asabiyyah is the bond of solidarity among members of a group or community. It’s the sense of collective identity and mutual responsibility that binds people together.
Source of Strength: For Ibn Khaldun, a strong asabiyyah is essential for the political and military success of a dynasty or state. Groups with a high degree of asabiyyah are more capable of concerted action and are thus more powerful.
Rural vs. Urban Dynamics: Ibn Khaldun observed that asabiyyah is typically stronger in rural, nomadic societies than in urban ones. In cities, luxury and comfort tend to erode the bonds of asabiyyah
Paths
Nomads are not moving around at random
which paths that are chosen depends on the geographical distribution of opportunities
pastoralists move their herds from summer pastures in the mountains to winter pastures in the valleys
similar to pastoralists
Transhumance
Nodes
nodes are intersections where roads come together;
hubs where we change planes and board ferries;
markets where we sell products and buy supplies; places where rivers are more easily forded and mountains crossed
make friends with people outside of their own group
it is at markets that the children of nomads get medical examinations and where international aid agencies vaccinate them against epidemics
Decision-making
Politics does not take place in any one place
nomads have no presidential palaces, parliament buildings or government offices
there is no pomp and circumstance
Politics happens in person-to-person relationships and through everyday practices
expulsion from the group is by far the most powerful way to punish transgressors
it is impossible to survive in a harsh environment
but also a threat — if there is a chance they might make it — if they are numerous enough
Decisions are typically made by the leaders of each household
threat of defection — ordinary members have a considerable amount of power.
a consensual forms of decision-making based on established customs
Conflicts
Relations among nomadic groups are often conflictual
raids not wars
there is no land to fight over — no land which can be invaded and occupied
here is no point in appropriating things which the raiders cannot take with them
Instead conflicts concern access to productive resources —
grazing rights above all
control over animals, women and labor
Nomadic empires
they occasionally come to form empires
For examples
The Xiongnu Empire (3rd century BCE – 1st century CE): A confederation of nomadic tribes that originated in modern-day Mongolia and expanded across parts of Central Asia and China
The Scythian Empire (9th century BCE – 4th century CE): A group of skilled nomadic warriors who originated in the Eurasian Steppe and established a vast territory stretching from modern-day Ukraine to Central Asia
The Hunnic Empire (4th century – 5th century CE): The Huns were a nomadic people who originated in Central Asia and migrated to Europe, where they established a powerful empire under the leadership of Attila the Hun
The Göktürk Khaganate (6th century – 8th century CE): A Turkic nomadic empire that emerged in Central Asia and expanded to encompass parts of modern-day China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Mongolia
The Mongol Empire (13th century – 14th century CE): At its height, the empire stretched from Eastern Europe to the Middle East, Russia, and Asia, including China, Korea, and Persia
The Timurid Empire (14th century – 16th century CE): Stretched from modern-day Turkey to India
Almoravids and Almohads in North Africa
Mali Empire — the Mandinka people
Internal organization
how the imperial organization differed from nomadic groups
Administration:
more centralized form of administration, with a ruling elite governing over various tribes or regions
divided into administrative units, each overseen by appointed or hereditary officials
Political Organization
hierarchical, with a supreme ruler or leader (such as a Khan or Khagan) at the top
other high-ranking tribal chiefs, military leaders, or members of the ruler’s family.
Laws:
more formalized legal systems, with written codes of law and a system of courts
although aspects of traditional customary law may still be present
incorporates elements from other cultures and civilizations with which they interact.
Federations
tribal confederations or federations, which allowed them to unite various groups under a single leader or governing body.
kinship and personal loyalty — maintain social cohesion and ensure loyalty among the various tribes and clans.
flexible structure — a lot of independence for tribes
central leadership limits to broad policy
led by charismatic leaders
mutual benefits — spoils of war
Kurultai
Mongols, but Turkic people too — “kurultay”
the leaders of the respective bands will get together to make decisions for society as a whole
leaders and representatives of various tribes to discuss and decide on matters of state
but outside of empires they could be small affairs
Rituals
oath-taking, feasting, and sporting events
reinforce social bonds and display the unity and strength of the group
Jurisdiction over
broker peace between feuding factions or settle issues of grazing rights and inheritance
choosing a new leader, discussing military strategies, and addressing major issues that affected the community.
Division of powers
while the Khan had significant authority, the Kurultai acted as a check on the Khan’s power, ensuring that the ruler adhered to the interests and concerns of the tribes and regions.
Trade and cultural exchange:
facilitating trade and cultural exchange between different regions, particularly along the famous Silk Road, which connected Europe, the Middle East, and Asia.
Paiza, Mongol Empire
or “gerege”
a tablet or a medallion made of metal or other materials, used as a form of passport or diplomatic immunity issued by the central authority and granted the bearer safe passage, access to supplies, and other privileges while traveling within the empire
“menşur” or “ferman,” among the Seljuks — bore the sultan’s seal.
“yarlyk” in the Golden Horde — the khan’s seal
Meritocracy:
nomadic empires often valued skills and abilities over lineage or birthright
conquered people with useful skills were integrated into the administrative or military hierarchy.
Reasons for the sudden expansion
Debated, no explanation totally convincing — cf. European expansion in the 19th century
environmental changes — droughts, sickness
population pressure
technological advancements — the stirrup theory of imperial expansion — the Great Wall of China?
charismatic leadership: Genghis Khan or Mohammed
opportunities — other empires fighting each other to exhaustion
logic of conquest — followers are faithfully followed as long as they get booty
Barbarians at the gate
The big question of the end of the Roman Empire
Gibbon in today’s reading
Other empires were invaded too
Gupta Empire — invasions from the Hephthalites, White Huns
Sassanian Empire — Hephthalites and Göktürks
Byzantine Empire — Avars, Bulgars, Cumans and Pechenegs
The empires had to rely on the diplomatic management techniques we discussed before …
Military superiority
Highly mobile armies
move far more quickly on their horses or camels than peasant armies can march on foot
armies made up of farmers will easily find themselves outflanked and surrounded.
Nomads are good hunters
a skill which quite easily can be adapted for military use
the coordination required to catch a herd of wild deer is not that different from the coordination required to successfully attack an enemy
Armies made up of nomads never have to defend a particular place
more likely to engage in skirmishes than in head-on battles
no essential military difference between an advance and a retreat
prefer to flee rather than to stand their ground and fight to the death, nomads have often been called “cowards” by sedentary populations
fleeing they can easily regroup and live to fight another day
The incredible speed of the occupation
because of their speed, nomads can often cover large tracts of land and are only stopped by cities that are sufficiently fortified
both Arabs and Mongols quickly learned the secrets of siege warfare.
But also a problem …
how they conquer land and overrun it, but never properly occupy it
once they have moved on, people could go back to their ordinary lives
the same places had to be reconquered many times
Other factors contributing to the success
Adaptability:
displayed remarkable adaptability, enabling them to thrive in diverse environments and interact with various neighboring cultures
no “culture” of their own
adopt and integrate different technologies, strategies, and cultural practices
Flexible governance:
flexible and adaptive governance systems
allowed for a more inclusive and responsive approach to governance.
Alliances
very good at forming alliances
and all those alliances
Quick decline
But the nomadic empires didn’t last long
and not at all as long as regular empires
Imperial overstretch
they were very thin on the ground
the Mongol Empire was enormous — from Java to Poland
but what did that actually mean on the ground?
General problem of transitioning to sedentary life
they had to get off their horses
Ibn Haldun theory
Rise and Fall of Dynasties: Ibn Khaldun theorized that dynasties rise to power based on strong asabiyyah. Initially, a group with strong social cohesion conquers and establishes a dynasty. However, over time, as the dynasty enjoys success and luxury, its asabiyyah weakens.
Cycle of Empires: This weakening of asabiyyah leads to the decline of the dynasty, making it vulnerable to conquest by a new group with stronger asabiyyah. Thus, Ibn Khaldun presents a cyclical view of history, where the rise and fall of dynasties are continuous.
Socio-Political Analysis: Ibn Khaldun’s concept was groundbreaking because it provided a socio-political lens to understand historical processes. He emphasized factors like group solidarity, economic conditions, and power dynamics over divine or individualistic explanations of historical events.
Internal divisions and succession disputes
true for all empires founded by charismatic figures
Genghis Khan, Muhammed, Timur
Loose administrative structure
allowed for rapid expansion — flexible and decentralized
but didn’t work for more mundane, day-to-day, administration
They relied on continued success
had to pay off people who were dependent on them
cf. pyramid scheme
Assimilation and loss of cultural identity
basically Ibn Haldun’s point about assabiyah
although the sinification explanation can be overdone
