Lecture notes: Congress of Vienna, 1815

French revolution

• revolutionary government redefine its diplomatic relations with the rest of Europe
• they were basically all monarchies

French aristocrats in exile

• plotting a return

Exporting the revolution

• spread their revolutionary ideas beyond France’s borders
• universal struggle against tyranny and oppression
• needed coalition of like-minded nations — “sister republics”

Revolutionary diplomacy:

• use the embassies abroad as tools of revolutionary propaganda
• make connections with local revolutionary groups
• often attracted the suspicion of the local secret police

Diplomatic isolation

• European powers severed diplomatic ties
• ideological differences — fear of revolutionary contagion.

Led to the French Revolutionary Wars

• and the Napoleonic Wars

Diplomatic appointments and practices

• replace the old aristocratic diplomatic corps with a new generation of diplomats who were loyal to the revolution
• loyalty rather than experience or competence — a less professional diplomatic service
• a more confrontational and aggressive approach to diplomacy
• issuing ultimatums and making demands rather than engaging in traditional diplomatic negotiation

Addressed foreign kings as “you” in official correspondence

• called themselves “Citoyen Ambassadeur”
• plant freedom trees

Freedom tree, French Revolution

Napoleonic wars

• between 1803 and 1815
• France and its allies under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte against various European powers

War of the Third Coalition (1803-1806)

• Third Coalition — Britain, Austria, Russia, and Sweden — against France
• significant French victories, including the Battle of Austerlitz (1805), where Napoleon defeated the combined forces of Austria and Russia
• ended with the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), which dissolved the Holy Roman Empire
• established the Confederation of the Rhine, a group of German states allied with France

War of the Fourth Coalition (1806-1807)

• Prussia, Russia, Britain, and Saxony — against France
• crushing victories at the Battles of Jena and Auerstedt (1806)
• occupation of Prussia.
• forced Russia and Prussia to become French allies

Peninsular War (1808-1814)

• more here

France invaded Portugal and Spain

• fierce resistance from Spanish and Portuguese forces
• severely strained French resources and contributed to Napoleon’s eventual downfall

War of the Fifth Coalition (1809):

• an initial Austrian success
• Napoleon won decisive victories at the Battles of Eckmühl and Wagram
• forcing Austria to sign the Treaty of Schönbrunn (1809) — significant territorial losses for Austria

French invasion of Russia (1812):

• ill-fated invasion of Russia
• disastrous retreat of his Grande Armée
• harsh Russian winter, supply issues, and persistent Russian resistance contributed to the decimation of Napoleon’s forces

War of the Sixth Coalition (1812-1814):

• following Napoleon’s retreat from Russia
• successfully invaded France, leading to Napoleon’s abdication in April 1814
• exile to the island of Elba

Where is Elba?

Hundred Days (1815):

• Napoleon escaped from Elba, returned to France
• reclaimed power for hundred days

The Seventh Coalition

• Battle of Waterloo (1815)
• final abdication and exile to the island of Saint Helena

Where is Saint Helena?

After the defeat of Napoleon in 1814

• European powers sought to restore the pre-revolutionary political order
• monarchical regimes and conservative values
• les anciens regimes

Bourbon Restoration in France:

• the Bourbon monarchy was restored
• Louis XVIII, the brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascending to the throne

Restoration of monarchies in other countries:

• in Spain, King Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne in 1814
• various traditional rulers all over Germany
• United Kingdom of the Netherlands
• assure stability domestically and internationally

Principle of legitimacy:

• ensuring that the rule of monarchies was respected and maintained
• some referred back to ideas about “divine kingship”
• “faith healing” — totally medieval custom

Reaction against revolutionary ideals:

• a resurgence of conservative values
• clampdown on dissent
• strengthening of monarchical and aristocratic authority
• there is always going to be problems as soon as the people are involved

Conference held from September 1814 to June 1815 in Vienna, Austria

• reestablish political stability and create a balance of power in Europe following the defeat of Napoleon

Attended by representatives from the major European power

• and their courts — and associated hangers-on

Very intense social life

• best understood as a celebration of the victory over Napoleon
• no actual negotiations in one room — a lot of negotiations in ball rooms and banquet halls

How difficult it had been for kings to meet previously

• elaborate protocol

Host

• Austrian statesman Prince Klemens von Metternich

Other prominent participants

• Tsar Alexander I of Russia
• King Frederick William III of Prussia
• Viscount Castlereagh representing Britain
• Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord representing France

Territorial changes:

The restoration of Bourbon rule in France under King Louis XVIII

Establishment of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands

• merging the former Dutch Republic and the Austrian Netherlands (modern-day Belgium and Luxembourg)

Consolidation of German states into the German Confederation

• a loose political association of 39 states, replacing the dissolved Holy Roman Empire

Poland divided

• expansion of Russia’s territory to include most of the Duchy of Warsaw
• with the remaining part of the duchy being combined with the Kingdom of Prussia

The restoration of the Papal States and the Kingdom of Sardinia in Italy

• the establishment of the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia under Austrian rule

The transfer of Norway from Denmark to Sweden

• as compensation for Sweden’s loss of Finland to Russia.

But at the same time …

• many of these changes were agreed to at other meeting — Treaty of Paris, 1814 etc.
• the “Congress of Vienna” is more like a place-holder for post-Napoleonic changes

Concert of Europe

Maintain a balance of power in Europe

• prevent the rise of a single dominant power, such as Napoleonic France
• resolve disputes peacefully.

Worked pretty nicely for much of the 19th century

• started to break down in the last decades
• rise of Germany after 1871

But outside of Europe there were a lot of colonial wars

• European powers are able to deal with them in a “civilized” way
• cf. Berlin conference

The Holy Alliance:

Tsar Alexander ‘s idea

• Russia, Austria, and Prussia
• based on Christian principles
• promoting peace and cooperation among European nations

Not much actual impact but symbol of the religious and conservative perspective

The principle of intervention:

• allowed the major powers to intervene in the internal affairs of other states to maintain order and stability
• in countries experiencing revolutionary upheaval
• Austrian intervention in Naples and Russian intervention in Hungary

The Concert of Europe system:

Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818):

• France’s integration back into the European community and the withdrawal of the Allied occupation forces from French territory

Congress of Troppau (1820):

• in response to the revolutionary movements in Spain and Italy
• determine the collective response of the major powers to suppress these revolts
• uphold the principle of monarchical legitimacy.

Congress of Laibach (1821):

• address the ongoing revolutions in Naples and Piedmont
• authorization of Austrian intervention to suppress the rebellions and restore the status quo

Congress of Verona (1822):

• the question of intervention in the ongoing Spanish revolution and the Greek War of Independence
• authorize a French intervention in Spain to suppress the liberal revolution.

Note that these locations were places of entertainment

• the importance of spa towns in the 19th century
• socializing and gambling
• diplomacy too
• hooks in to the upper-class sociability of the age

Diplomatic practices