Lecture notes: Versailles, 1919

The First World War

An unbelievable amount of material published about the outbreak of WW1

• but, problem explaining the causes, even today
• different historians blame different countries

“Entangling alliances”

• a complicated web of alliances designed to maintain a balance of power and deter aggression
• the unintended consequence of escalating regional conflicts

Like a system of trip wires

• diplomacy is powerless once the system is set off

Triple Entente

• France, Russia, United Kingdom

Triple Alliance

• Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy

Militarism

• arms race
• investing heavily in the expansion and modernization of their armed forces

Whatever happened to the Concert of Europe?

• fraternity of kings is breaking down
• unification of Italy and Germany — they want to joint the alliances
• not a part of the Congress
• industrial revolution changes society

Rise of Germany

• late industrialization, but very fast
• great German universities
• use science — like chemistry — to develop

Imperialism

• competition for colonial territories and resources
• Berlin, 1885 — “all very civilized”
• but did lead to tension

Nationalism

• particularly in the Balkans
• ethnic groups sought independence from the Ottomans and the Austrians

Race

Race thinking

• in relation to “inferior races”
• competition between states

Will power

Industrial society and a weakening of the will

• neurasthenia
• “strengthen the will”

Cult of “will power” and “self-determination

• Nietzsche — “will to power”

The immediate cause

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914

• heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne
• by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist

This assassination set off the trip wire

Enthusiasm?

Some were clearly very enthusiastic

• very famous argument

Sad story about

• the end of an internationalist working class

The neurasthenics

• “liberate us from boredom”

but the actual picture is more complex

• lots of people were just dragging their feet

1914:

• Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3
• Germany invaded Belgium on August 4, prompting Britain to declare war on Germany

The early phase of the war

• rapid German advances in the West

Schlieffen Plan

• quickly defeating France by bypassing their heavily fortified border and sweeping through Belgium
• halted at the Battle of the Marne in September

Eastern Front, Germany and Austria-Hungary initially faced setbacks against Russia, but eventually stabilized their positions

Trench warfare

• dominate the Western Front, resulting in a stalemate
• both sides digging in and launching costly attacks with little progress

1916:

• Battle of Verdun
• Battle of the Somme

1917:

• February Revolution in Russia
• The United States entered the war on the side of the Allies in April

1918:

• The Central Powers, facing food shortages, military defeats, and internal unrest, began to disintegrate
• Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary signed armistices with the Allies in September and October
• Germany signed the Armistice of Compiègne on November 11, marking the end of the war

Dolchstoss legende

• the “stab-in-the-back myth”

Popular conspiracy theory

• propagated by various right-wing and nationalist groups to discredit the democratic Weimar Republic that emerged after the war
• the German Army was not truly defeated on the battlefield but was instead betrayed by civilians, particularly politicians and revolutionaries
• “stabbed them in the back” by signing the armistice and agreeing to the harsh conditions of the Treaty of Versailles

Part of Hitler’s propaganda

• the Germans gave up with no foreign troops on its soil
• but they clearly were in dire straits

Casualty figures for the war

As direct consequences of the fighting

• maybe 10 million soldiers died
• 7 million civilians

Brest-Litovsk, March 3, 1918

• between the new Bolshevik government of Soviet Russia and the Central Powers
• Russia’s exit from World War I

Bolshevik negotiators

• hoping for a workers’ revolution to erupt in Germany which would change the dynamics of the negotiations

Faced with the prospect of a complete military collapse, Lenin decided to accept the harsh terms offered by the Central Powers

Russia agreed to cede vast territories to the Central Powers

• including Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania), and a significant portion of Poland
• about a third of Russia’s population and agricultural land, as well as half of its industrial resources

Russia agreed to demobilize its army and stop all hostilities against the Central Powers.

The Bolsheviks promised to pay war reparations to the Central Powers.

Russia agreed to recognize the independence of Ukraine and Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan

A severe blow to Russia

• but it allowed the Bolshevik government to focus on the ongoing Russian Civil War and secure its rule

Central Powers

• they could concentrate their forces on the Western Front

The treaty was annulled by the Armistice of November 11, 1918, which marked the end of World War I

• Treaty of Versailles: Russian lands were given back
• or recognized as independent states

The Soviet Union joined the League of Nations in 1934

• Soviet diplomats also wore formal attire such as top hats and tails at official events
• the Soviet Union was often critical of the League and its policies

Later collaboration

German military officers and engineers traveled to the Soviet Union to train and share technical expertise with their Soviet counterparts

The Kama and Lipetsk training camps

• the Germans set up secret military training camps at Kama and Lipetsk
• used to train German pilots, tank crews, and other military personnel
• test new military technologies

The Versailles Treaty

• Paris Peace Conference, started January 1919

Key participants:

• delegates from 32 countries

The “Big Four” Allied powers:

• Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States;
• David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom;
• Georges Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France
• Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, Prime Minister of Italy

Competing interests:

• Wilson sought a peace based on his Fourteen Points
• Clemenceau wanted to punish Germany and ensure its future weakness to prevent another war
• Lloyd George sought a compromise between Wilson’s idealism and Clemenceau’s desire for retribution
• Orlando aimed to secure Italian territorial gains promised by earlier agreements

Germany and the Central Powers:

• Germany and the other defeated Central Powers were not invited to participate in the negotiations, and their interests were not represented.
• The Allies imposed harsh penalties on Germany

Keynes, “The Economic consequences of the peace,” 1919

• unfair treatment of Germany
• we are in it all together

Territorial adjustments:

• Germany lost about 13% of its territory and all its overseas colonies
• Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France, and significant territories were ceded to Belgium, Denmark, Czechoslovakia, and Poland
• Saar Basin was placed under the control of the League of Nations, and the Rhineland was demilitarized.
• Austro-Hungarian Empire was dissolved
• new nations like Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and an enlarged Romania were established

Disarmament and reparations:

• Germany was required to disarm, reducing its army to 100,000 soldiers and eliminating its air force, submarines, and most heavy artillery
• German navy was limited in size, and the country was forbidden from forming alliances with Austria and Russia
• required to pay reparations for war damages, initially set at 269 billion gold marks (later reduced to 132 billion).

Critics argued that the harsh terms imposed on Germany would lead to future conflicts

• many Germans felt humiliated and betrayed
• its punitive measures contributed to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the outbreak of World War II just two decades later
• cf. Keynes’s points …

Diplomatic culture

Shift in diplomatic culture

• from aristocratic culture to more middle-class and technocratic ideals

Representation:

• primarily middle-class politicians
• Woodrow Wilson was a professor and an academic before entering politics
• David Lloyd George was a lawyer with working-class roots

Ideals and goals:

• influenced by the democratic and nationalistic ideals of the time
• marked a departure from the aristocratic emphasis on maintaining the balance of power and preserving dynastic rule

Technocratic approach:

• greater involvement of experts and bureaucrats in the decision-making process
• technical committees on territorial disputes, economic policies, and disarmament
• end of the era of aristocratic, court-based, diplomacy
• Wilson took the American ideals with him to Europe

Influence of public opinion:

• public opinion and democratic processes had an impact
• more difficult to negotiate — and reach agreements

May 4th Movement in China

German colony in Shandong, China

• handed over to Japan
• as one of the victors in the war

Big demonstrations at Peking University

• students are against the agreement
• but also calling for general reforms and modernization
• very important — origin of the Chinese Communist Part etc

Less socializing

• dances and banquets and all that
• very, very different from the Congress of Vienna, 1815
• no celebrations — although some delegates enjoyed themselves privately in Paris …

Wilson’s 14 points

• set of principles for peace that he proposed in a speech to the United States Congress on January 8, 1918

Framework for a just and lasting peace following World War I

1. Open diplomacy:

• public peace treaties without secret agreements between nations.

2. Freedom of the seas:

• unrestricted navigation in peace and war, except for international agreements.

3. Free trade:

• removal of trade barriers and economic cooperation among nations.

4. Arms reduction:

• countries should reduce their military armaments to the lowest levels consistent with domestic safety.

5. Fair adjustment of colonial claims:

• colonial people should have a say in their future, and their interests should be taken into account.

6. Russia:

• the Allies should support Russia’s recovery and political self-determination.

7. Belgium:

• restoration of Belgium as a sovereign and independent nation.

8. France:

• return of Alsace-Lorraine to France from Germany.

9. Italy:

• the borders of Italy should be adjusted along lines of nationality.

10. Austria-Hungary:

• self-determination for the peoples of Austria-Hungary.

11. The Balkans:

• self-determination and development for the Balkan states.

12. Turkey:

• sovereignty for the Turkish people and protection for minorities within the Ottoman Empire.

13. Poland:

• establishment of an independent Polish state with access to the sea.

14. League of Nations:

• creation of a general association of nations to provide mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to all member states

Self-determination

People should have the right to choose their own form of government and decide their own political destiny

• ethnic and national groups should have the opportunity to govern themselves, free from external interference or control

Dismantle these empires and replace them with smaller, more homogeneous nation-states where the people shared a common language, culture, and history

• help to reduce tensions and prevent future wars.

But it was not consistently applied in Europe

• Hungary loses a lot of its territory at the Peace of Trianon

and the colonies of the victors remain

• the Mandate System actually extended their colonial possessions

Turkey and World War I

The Ottoman Empire entered the war in late October 1914

• after signing a secret alliance with Germany
• an alliance with Germany would help them get back lost land

Gallipoli Campaign (1915):

• The British and French forces, along with troops from Australia and New Zealand, attempted to seize control of the Dardanelles Strait
• secure a supply route to Russia
• successfully defended by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

Mesopotamian Campaign (1914-1918):

• fighting against British forces in Mesopotamia
• the British protecting oil fields
• the British captured Baghdad in 1917, eventually taking control of the entire region

Caucasus Campaign (1914-1918):

• The Ottoman Empire fought against Russia in the Caucasus region

Sinai and Palestine Campaign (1915-1918):

• The British captured Jerusalem in 1917 and the eventual defeat of the Ottoman forces in the region

Arab Revolt

• Arab nationalism, aided and abetted by Britain

Treaty of Sèvres, August 10, 1920

• between the Allied Powers and the Ottoman Empire

Territorial losses:

• lost Arab provinces
• ceded parts of Eastern Thrace and the Aegean islands to Greece
• Smyrna was placed under Greek administration
• creation of an independent Armenian state in eastern Anatolian and an autonomous Kurdish region
• Dardanelles and Bosporus Straits under the control of an international commission

Financial and military restrictions:

• the Ottoman army was significantly reduced
• required to pay war reparations to the Allies

Treaty of Lausanne, July 24, 1923

• between the Allied Powers and the newly established Republic of Turkey, following the victory of Turkish nationalist forces in the War of Independence
• The treaty replaced the Treaty of Sèvres and established the modern borders of Turkey

The main provisions of the treaty included:

• the situation we know today

Population exchange:

• 1.5 million Greek Orthodox Christians from Anatolia to Greece
• 500,000 Muslims from Greece to Turkey

The League of Nations

• mentioned by Wilson
• established with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919
• began its operations on January 10, 1920

Aims

• disarmament,
• collective security
• peaceful settlement of disputes.

Specialized agencies — the ILO

• addressing issues such as labor conditions, public health, and the treatment of minorities

Members coming and going

• absence of major powers like the United States, the Soviet Union (until 1934), and later Germany, Italy, and Japan
• lacked a unified military force to enforce its decisions, and its reliance on economic sanctions as a primary means of conflict resolution proved to be insufficient

The US and the League

• opposition from isolationists
• concerns about national sovereignty
• some senators were very anti-Wilson

Disarmament

During the 1920s, several attempts were made to promote disarmament and control armaments, primarily through international diplomacy and treaties

The League of Nations

• aimed to promote disarmament, prevent wars, and resolve international disputes

The Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922)

• a major international effort to limit naval armaments and prevent an arms race among the world’s major naval powers
• set limits on the tonnage and construction of capital ships
• relatively successful in limiting naval armaments during the 1920s
• but it began to unravel in the 1930s as Japan, Italy, and Germany started to rearm

The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928):

• aimed to outlaw war as a means of resolving international disputes
• 62 countries signed the pact
• had no enforcement mechanism and did not prevent the aggressive actions of countries such as Japan, Italy, and Germany

Geneva Disarmament Conference (1932-1934)

• organized by the League of Nations
• aimed to achieve comprehensive disarmament
• conference ended in failure

Anti-Imperialism

We talked about this last week

• reaction to the situation in Congo
• the US war in the Philippines

The Mandate System

• apart of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919

Designed to administer the former colonies and territories of the defeated Central Powers

• and some regions detached from the Ottoman Empire

Prepare these territories for self-governance under the supervision and guidance of the League of Nations

• “mandatory powers” in charge

Class A Mandates

The most advanced and closest to self-governance

• primarily of former Ottoman provinces in the Middle East
• Britain was given mandates for Palestine and Iraq
• France was given mandates for Syria and Lebanon

Class B Mandates

Less developed and requiring more guidance from the mandatory power

• former German colonies in sub-Saharan Africa
• Britain was given mandates for Tanganyika and parts of Cameroon and Togoland
• France was given mandates for other parts of Cameroon and Togoland, as well as for French Equatorial Africa
• Belgium received a mandate for Ruanda-Urundi

Class C Mandates

Considered the least developed and most remote

• former German colonies in the Pacific: New Guinea, which was assigned to Australia;
• Western Samoa, assigned to New Zealand
• Nauru, administered by Australia, New Zealand, and Britain.
• South West Africa (present-day Namibia) was assigned to South Africa

The Palestine Mandate

Diaries of Theodor Herzl

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Herzl – 1960 – The Complete Diaries of Theodor Herzl

Who was Theodor Herzl?

Balfour Declaration

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Who was Arthur Balfour?

Mandate for Palestine, 1922

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mandate for palestine

Palestine census, 1922

• Read at Internet Archive