Lecture notes: What is diplomacy?

Two sense of “diplomacy”

As foreign policy

• history becomes the history of foreign policy

Diplomacy as the activities of diplomats

• a more institutional perspective
• or as a practice

We will do all of this

• but I’m particularly interested in the practices of diplomacy

A certain position

• at the intersection between states, cultures, societies
• a “liminal” position — limen meaning “threshold”
• looking in two directions at once

Knowing your own society

• representing it
• teaching others about it

Knowing the other society

• making sense of the other
• gathering information and knowledge
• making contacts — learning languages

This would include

• travelers
• adventurers

Relating the two

Conveying

• translating what they are saying
• instructions” from your government

Interacting

• “dealing with problems
• negotiating

More nefarious aspects

• spreading rumors — a diplomat is “a person sent abroad to lie on behalf of his country”
• spying

Cf. loose use of the term: “ambassador”

• brand ambassador
• cultural ambassador
• goodwill ambassador
• student ambassador
• corporate ambassador
• community ambassador
• sports ambassador
• peace ambassador
• technology ambassador

Example: La Malinche

Born some time around 1500

• her father died and she was sold into slavery
• one of 20 female slaves given to Hernán Cortés in 1519

Talented

• spoke both Aztec and Maya
• used as a translator
• helped get allies for the Spanish

Working for Cortés

• key advisor and negotiator
• had a son with him — Martín — blending of Indigenous and Spanish heritage

Controversy:

• was she a traitor or a mediator?
• the political situation was complex — the Aztec alliance was weak
• women had limited options

Professional diplomats

Working in a foreign office or for an international organization

• you have a job and a title

Traditional tasks — from Silva

• representation
• protection
• negotiation
• information

Big differences working in foreign office and in the field

• high politics vs. very ordinary administration
• diplomats properly speaking vs consular staff

Embassy, consulate

Consular staff

Consul General, Consul, and Vice Consul

• assistance to nationals
• issuing passports and visas
• notarial services and civil registry
• protecting citizens’ interests
• crisis management
• promoting cultural and economic ties
• legal and judicial matters
• administrative tasks

Honorary consul

• a part-time basis in a city where the appointing country does not have a resident career consul or consulate office
• typically local or foreign nationals residing in the host country
• cf. Icelandic honorary consul in Tokyo …

Kinds of diplomacy

Bilateral diplomacy

Multilateral diplomacy

• as an image of world politics
• all states are here – represented by their diplomats
• an image of what international politics is
• 193 members
• Switzerland was not a member for a long time …

Parliamentary diplomacy

• Something Silva talks about — emphasizing the rules and regulations of institutional assemblies

Public diplomacy

• USC Center on Public Diplomacy
• Public diplomacy refers to the efforts of a state, or its surrogates, to conduct foreign policy and improve its foreign image by engaging and influencing foreign publics directly, rather than through traditional diplomatic channels which typically involve state actors and officials. It encompasses a range of activities including cultural exchanges, international broadcasting, social media engagement, and educational programs, aimed at building long-term relationships that enhance the understanding and appreciation of the state’s culture, values, and policies.
• cf. “soft power”

Secret diplomacy

• often treaties with secret clauses — if something happens, then something else would happen
• blamed for wars
• Woodrow Wilson pushes against it

Coercive diplomacy

• diplomacy accompanied by military threats
• “War is merely the continuation of policy (or politics) by other means” — not actually diplomacy

Shuttle diplomacy

• High-level diplomats going back and forth between capitals
• cf. Blinken in the Middle East

Summit diplomacy

• heads-of-state can meet in person
• traditionally very complicated

Diplomacy pertaining to particular areas:

• economic diplomacy
• cultural diplomacy
• digital diplomacy
• track ii diplomacy
• environmental diplomacy
• health diplomacy
• defense diplomacy

Changing roles

Information gathering

• it used to be very difficult to get information from foreign places
• the “ears and eyes” of the government
• this is no longer true
• we seem to know everything

Why are diplomats still needed?

• personal connections
• knowing who to talk to
• people who can call us
• not all information is public

Extraterritoriality

• immunity from jurisdiction
• inviolability of the diplomatic premises
• inviolability of the diplomatic bag
• inviolability of diplomatic communications
• immunity from taxation
• immunity from social security provisions
• exemption from customs duties
• personal inviolability
• right to use codes and receive papers or correspondence by courier
• immunity from testifying as a witness
• family immunity

Relations with home government

Degree of independence

• has varied a lot historically
• getting instructions from Europe to China
• now it can be immediate

“Plenipotentiary”

• a diplomat who has been given full and complete authority to represent their government and make decisions on its behalf in negotiations with another state or international organization

Air travel

• go around the world and come back in a day

The corps diplomatique

• resident diplomats
• a mini-society
• doyen – the longest serving senior diplomat is appointed to the position

coming together for their own safety

• gathering information

• getting angry on behalf of your country

Sociability of states

English school / realism

diplomatic recognition

• you agree to talk – agree on being counter-parts
• not only relations with friendly nations

the creation of an international society

usually broken off during war, but not always

• Iran and Iraq had diplomatic relations during their war in the 1980s

Unrecognized countries

Taiwan

• recognized as a sovereign entity by the Holy See as well as 19 member states of the United Nations. It maintains diplomatic relations with 57 other member states of the UN, although they are unofficial

Abkhazia

• recognized by Russia, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Nauru and Syria

North Cyprus

• Recognised only by Turkey, Northern Cyprus is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

withdrawing diplomatic relations

ways of communicating

• through third parties
• other than diplomatic channels

Diplomatic protocol

• not involving individuals, but states
• It is the application of rank and precedence used when rendering courtesies, honors, and ceremony to certain persons or agencies for events having a defined agenda and sequence of events. More formally, it consists of the rules prescribing the etiquette accorded to ceremonies of state. In the military, it is the knowledge and application of established service customs.

Diplomatic “incidents”

Diplomatic culture

• aristocratic heritage
• way of relating to one another
• glamorous position
• prestigious job – but often not that well paid

Vienna Réglement, 1815

• heads of state meeting for the first time
• seniority principle

Barder, Multilateral diplomacy

Brian Barder was a British diplomat. Read more about him here. He maintained a popular blog.

This chapter is from his book What diplomats do: the life and work of diplomats, 2014. It has a very British focus, but is still interesting.

Zarif, “Four Mistakes In Our Negotiations We Need To Be Aware Of”

• Mohammad Javad Zarif
• Foreign minister, 2013-2021 — under Hassan Rouhani
• succeeded by Hossein Amir-Abdollahian

Two stories:

• Little boy story
• Major shareholder in factory story

The four mistakes:

1. Not listening to each other and debate instead of dialogue

2. Presumptions about the intentions and plans of others

• not everyone might want to eat the oranges, you can also use the peel

3. Assume that situations are zero-sum or win-lose

4. Self-fulfilling prophecies

United Nations

• debates instead of discussions
• defeating opponents
• speak instead of listening

Our presumptions

• can’t even imagine what the other one is up to
• for example, they all assumed we wanted nuclear power for making bombs

Zero sum

• We think that the party that loses less is the winner
• the US in the Middle East
• negotiations about nuclear weapons — both were losers
• you are only safe if your partner is safe
• if the other party fails, the country fails, and we fail too

Self-fulfilling prophecies

• both sides in an international agreement think the other party will free-ride
• no one dares investing in Iran

Btw, The nuclear weapons deal with Iran

The Iran Nuclear Deal, formally known as the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), was agreed upon in 2015 between Iran and the P5+1 group (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany), along with the European Union. The deal aimed to curb Iran’s nuclear program in exchange for lifting economic sanctions, addressing international concerns over Iran’s nuclear capabilities. The JCPOA was designed to extend the time Iran would need to produce a nuclear weapon if it chose to break the agreement, from a few months to at least one year, by imposing restrictions on its nuclear enrichment program and allowing for comprehensive inspections by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)​​​​.

However, the deal began to unravel when the United States, under President Donald Trump, unilaterally withdrew in 2018, reinstating harsh sanctions against Iran. This move was opposed by the other signatories, who strived to keep the agreement alive despite the U.S.’s withdrawal. In response, Iran began to reduce its compliance with the deal’s terms, accelerating its nuclear program and raising tensions​​​​.

Recent efforts to revive the JCPOA have been fraught with difficulty. Negotiations have seen ups and downs, with a final text based on a European offer ultimately falling through. Accusations of insincerity have been leveled by both Iran and the West, leading to a deadlock amidst significant internal and external developments, such as protests within Iran and the imposition of further sanctions by Western countries on Iran for various reasons including human rights abuses and alleged military support to Russia​​.

As of now, the future of the JCPOA remains uncertain. While there have been no public signs of progress in the talks, both Iran and the U.S. have hinted at alternative plans if the deal cannot be salvaged, raising concerns about potential military confrontation. Nevertheless, neither side has officially declared the accord dead. The IAEA has continued to push for more inspection and monitoring access to verify the peacefulness of Iran’s nuclear program, amid reports of Iran enriching uranium to near weapons-grade levels​​.

The situation remains complex and fluid, with the international community closely watching for any developments that might impact the future of Iran’s nuclear program and regional stability.

Diplomatic language

Winston Churchill: “Telling other people to go to hell in such a way that they would ask for direction.”

Listen to this podcast from NPR, National Public Radio (US). The French ambassador to Washington is very skilled at using diplomatic language. https://ondemand.npr.org/anon.npr-mp3/npr/me/2021/09/20210902_me_european_leaders_had_urged_biden_to_extend_us_deadline_to_leave_afghanistan.mp3

• episode home
• more about Philippe Etienne.

Compare the following exchange at the United Nations.

The US and Denmark

“Jeg heter Rufus Gifford”

Relations between very large countries and very small ones can be fraught with problems. Relations between Denmark and the US were going very well as long as Rufus Gifford was the US ambassador. Can you figure out why?

• Danish reality show makes great public diplomacy

Read more about Gifford here:

• Wikipedia

How did Gifford, with no background in the diplomatic service, manage to become an ambassador? How are US ambassadors chosen?

If you really are interested in this topic, listen to:

episode home

Greenland

Relations between the two countries soured once the US president had a bright idea. What was the idea and what was the problem with it? Why, btw, is Greenland a part of Denmark? Which other parts of the world has the US bought?

So what did Rufus Gifford think of Trumps idea? No, he didn’t think it was very smart.

• Click here

Samantha Power on Diplomacy and motherhood

More activities

The Vienna convention

The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) is an international agreement that regulates treaties among sovereign states. Known as the “treaty on treaties”, the VCLT establishes comprehensive, operational guidelines, rules, and procedures for how treaties are drafted, defined, amended, and interpreted. An international treaty is a written agreement between countries subject to international law that stipulates their consent to the creation, alteration, or termination of their rights and obligations, as stipulated in the treaty. The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties was adopted and opened to signature on 23 May 1969, became effective on 27 January 1980, and has been ratified by 116 sovereign states as of January 2018. Non-ratifying parties, such as the U.S., have recognized parts of the VCLT as a restatement of customary international law. In treaty law, the VCLT is the authority for resolving disputes about the interpretation of a treaty.

• Read more at Wikipedia
• Ask questions about the Vienna Convention here.

Example questions

• What privileges are given to diplomats according to the Vienna Convention?
• What are the obligations of diplomats according to the Vienna Convention?
• Why has the United States not ratified the Vienna Convention?