Lecture notes: Updated empires

Empires today

The corrosive power of nationalism

today there are not supposed to be any empires left

Anti-colonialism — liberation for all those new states

UN and decolonization
only very marginal areas left

And yet … “spheres of interest”

the US in Central America
the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe
France in Africa

China establishing a sphere of interest in East Asia

Laos, for example, basically a part of China
new Chinese IR — returning to the imperial model
but updated of course

Other new powers

Turkey
a lot of self-confidence during the first 10 years of AKP rule
Ottoman Empire 2.0

Daesh

taking advantage of the breakdown of traditional nation-states
traditional empires as an alternative

“Civilizational identities”

no need to go full Huntington here …
often the result of old empires
people feel a communality

Pan-nationalism

Pan-Africanism — Zulkarnain will say more about that in a couple of weeks
Pan-Arabism — we will talk about that later as well …
a resurrected Caliphate

Calls for neo-imperial institutions

some of the readings in the week on “failed states”

Actual neo-imperial institutions

EU
perhaps a future African Union — but Zulkarnain will say more about that

Neo-Ottomanism

In the first decade of the twenty-first century

Turkish economy was doing very well—with growth rates similar to those in China—and here too, the country’s self-confidence received a boost

The European Union continued to deny the country membership

ignore Europe and instead create a sphere of influence of one’s own

Ottoman Empire as a model

at the height of its power included most of the Middle East, North Africa, the Balkans, and much of Eastern Europe
“Neo-Ottomanism” –“Ottoman Empire 2.0”

Goals

not control other states politically, but it would draw them closer by means of investments and trade
traditional conflicts were to be resolved, and any new conflicts would be settled by means of Turkish military interventions

Ottoman civilization

historical dramas on TV, which received large audiences in all former Ottoman lands
promoting the revival of traditional Ottoman arts, architecture, and cultural values
use of soft power, including diplomacy, economic ties, cultural exchanges, and the promotion of the Turkish language, to build stronger relationships with countries in the former Ottoman sphere of influence

Islam

Neo-Ottomanism often highlights Turkey’s Islamic identity and the historical role of the Ottoman Empire as a defender and promoter of Islam

East and West

Neo-Ottomanism seeks to position Turkey as a bridge between the two, maintaining strong ties with both Europe and Asia

Critique

Aggressive foreign policy
undermine the secular identity of the country
Turkey way too dependent on Europe economically

Outcome

after about a decade, with a declining Turkish economy and pushback from several of the designated members of the system, talk of Neo-Ottomanism came to an end

Pan-Turkism

The cultural and political unification of all Turkic peoples

based on a shared linguistic, cultural, and historical heritage
a way for Turkic speakers in the Russian empire to defend their identity

Originated in the late 19th century among Turkic intellectuals of the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire

a pan-nationalist movement

Had an influence on the Turkish state

Nothing ever came of it

How much is left today?

A new caliphate

anti-nationalist groups
religion as unifying logic

The ummah — Dar al-Islam

Dar al-Harb

Cf. European conceptions of a body

Corpus Christianum

Or eklesia

Hizb ut-Tahrir

Ideology and Goals:

re-establishment of the Caliphate
a single Islamic state governed by Islamic law (Sharia)
unify the Muslim community (Ummah) across the world

Cf. the nationalistic and secular governments that exist in many Muslim-majority countries

Methods:

non-violent approach
focuses on education and intellectual discourse, aiming to convince Muslims to embrace their vision of an Islamic state
organizes conferences, distributes literature, and engages in public speaking to promote its agenda

Global presence:

has a presence in many countries across the Middle East, Central Asia, Europe
both in Muslim-majority countries and in Muslim communities in the diaspora

Controversy and Opposition:

banned in several countries, including many in the Arab world, Russia, and Central Asian countries — including Turkey
critics argue that its ideology is radical and could promote extremism

Interview

Abdul Wahid

recently in the news — here

Why did you join?

spiritual vacuum
failure of politics

Political and economic system

Rationalism in Islam

al-Ghazali

The Golden Age of Islam

They presented a solution

it’s good to have grievances
it’s good to be angry

Daesh, Islamic State, ISIS

Rationale

a unifying force for Muslims worldwide and create a more just, equitable, and Islamic political system
attempted to establish their own caliphate by force, violently seizing territory and imposing a strict interpretation of Islamic law

In 2014, Daesh or ISIS, the Islamic state, managed to capture large parts of Iraq and Syria

declared that they had established a new caliphate with the city of Raqqa as its capital

Defeated in 2019,

but continues to engage in military actions throughout the Muslim world
continues to claim religious authority over all Muslims—a claim vehemently rejected by all but a very small minority of believers

How little they actually understand about their own history

the actually existing caliphates
always very problematic to try to install the kingdom on God on earth

Controversies and criticisms

the institution is outdated and incompatible with modern political realities, such as the nation-state system and democratic governance
the pursuit of a caliphate could exacerbate sectarian tensions, encourage radicalization, and destabilize the Muslim world.

IR Theory with Chinese characteristics

This is where we find the most elaborate neo-imperialist theories

old ideas of an imperial system have been revived
“rise of China” — wondering about it’s place in the world

Claims:

the imperial system was better organized
fewer conflicts
more prosperity

Alternative to the anarchy of the present nation-state system

Revive it in some form

but make it more palatable to non-Chinese

China’s place in the world

The “Middle Kingdom”

in the middle of its own world
everyone coming to visit them
the solar system model — we talked about this last time …

1860 as a watershed

the Europeans “liberate” the Chinese “from their illusions”
tributary missions stopped coming — although the Koreans didn’t get the memo right away

Europeans

“invite the Chinese into history”
marginal place in the world
“a developing country”

Mao Zedong’s “Three worlds”

Formulated in 1974

after the break with the Soviet Union
right at the end of the Cultural Revolution
China very poor

Find a new place for itself

leader of the downtrodden masses of the world

First World:

the United States and the Soviet Union
the superpowers
characterized by their significant global influence and military might

Second World:

countries like Japan, Canada, Europe, and other nations of the global North
developed nations with substantial economic power but not as influential as the superpowers

Third World

China, India, nations in Africa, Latin America, and continental Asia
downtrodden and non-aligned

Cd. Alfred Sauvy’s “Three-World Model”

the West
the Communist states, including China
everyone else

The “rise of China”

at the very least be a superpower with its own sphere of influence
revival of ancient models — but in updated form

Not just a political order, but a philosophical

rethink international relations from the bottom up
its most fundamental assumptions
establish a new political — and philosophical — basis for a world order

Tianxia, 天下

“All Under Heaven”

denotes the world as a whole, everything and everyone that exists
a political notion — the world as one realm, one political system, governed by one ruler

Cf. the “Son of Heaven,” Tianzi, 天子

ie. the Emperor of China
cf. the world of the imperial tribute system, gradually shading off into increasingly insignificant margins
there is no outside, no one is a foreigner, the system is open
everyone is included — and everyone is subject to the same political order

Zhao Tingyang

Some biographical data:

born in 1961
professor at Peking University
The Tianxia System: An Introduction to the Philosophy of a World Institution

The world that should be prioritized, not individual states

Only in this way can we have peace and deal with challenges such as global warming

Today: failed world rather than failed states

no country could possibly be successful in a failed word
the US takes over and tries to impose its interests on everyone else
but this always serves American interests

Cf. traditional view:

rule of men rather than rule by laws
the moral character of the ruler
the way they follow the rituals, their obligations
this is the way the world is held together

The political order is built from the top

there should be complementarity and harmony between the world, the state and whatever regional levels there might be
they should follow the same logic and they should fit together
ut is the order of the world that determines the others.

But this also means that there is a lot of independence for the sub-systems

they can do whatever they like as long as they are in conformity with the political framework as a whole

Quotes:

“The world, states and families thus need to be consistent in their way of governance, so as to be nothing else but different manifestations of one universal institution. This means that the order and peace of larger political societies is always the necessary guarantee for that of smaller ones. This is thus a descending order from ‘all-under-heaven’ to nation-states to families”
“The UN is not a world institution with substantial power to govern the world, but only an organization for negotiating and bargaining each nation’s interests. The UN has no substantial power, and is hence unable to resist a superpower’s dominance over the world.”

US hegemony isn’t good enough

“The truth is that domestic democracy can enhance imperialist hegemony over the world; international democracy does just the opposite. Everyone should be allowed to vote in American elections. This is one reason why the United States is losing its political standing in the world, playing different political games in domestic and international arenas.”

Yan Xuetong

born 1952
Tsinghua University, Beijing

Main ideas:

Yan Xuetong, a prominent Chinese political scientist and a leading figure in international relations theory in China, is known for his unique blend of ancient Chinese thought and contemporary political realism. His political philosophy is deeply rooted in the realist tradition, emphasizing power and morality in international relations. Here’s a summary of his key ideas:

1. **Moral Realism**: Yan integrates traditional Chinese moral thinking with realist perspectives, creating a concept of “moral realism.” He argues that moral factors, in addition to material capabilities, are crucial in determining a state’s power and influence. This approach contrasts with Western realism, which often focuses solely on material power.

2. **Influence of Ancient Chinese Thought**: His work is heavily influenced by pre-Qin philosophers, especially the Realist School (or Legalism) and Confucianism. He often draws on historical figures like Xunzi and Han Feizi, advocating that leadership should be based on moral authority and strategic wisdom.

3. **Critique of Western Liberalism**: Yan challenges the Western liberal perspective that emphasizes democracy and economic interdependence as pathways to peace. He argues that these factors are less significant than power dynamics and moral leadership in shaping international relations.

4. **Importance of Leadership and Morality**: He emphasizes the role of moral leadership in international affairs, arguing that countries led by morally superior leaders will have more influence and be more successful in the international arena.

5. **Power Transition Theory**: Yan is known for his views on power transition, particularly regarding the rise of China. He suggests that a shift in global power is inevitable and that China’s rise will reshape the international order. However, he also warns against aggressive expansion, advocating for a peaceful approach to China’s growing influence.

6. **Advocacy for a New Model of International Relations**: He proposes a new model of international relations that combines moral factors with realist power dynamics. This model suggests that nations should seek to increase their influence through moral leadership rather than solely through military or economic might.

Yan Xuetong’s philosophy reflects a blend of ancient wisdom and modern international relations theory, offering a distinct perspective that challenges some of the conventional Western approaches to global politics. His ideas have gained significant attention and debate, especially in the context of China’s rising role on the global stage.

Qin Yaquing

born 1953
Foreign Affairs University, Beijing

Main ideas:

Qin Yaqing is a prominent Chinese international relations scholar known for his contributions to the field of political philosophy, particularly in the context of China’s role in global politics. His work is often centered around several key themes:

1. **Relationality in International Relations**: Qin advocates for a relational approach to international relations, emphasizing the importance of relationships, context, and process over static entities or structures. This perspective draws from traditional Chinese philosophy, particularly Confucianism, which values harmony and balance in relationships.

2. **Critique of Western-Centric Theories**: He critiques the dominance of Western-centric theories in international relations, arguing that they may not adequately reflect or explain the behaviors and interactions of non-Western states. Qin seeks to develop theoretical frameworks that are more inclusive of different cultural and historical contexts.

3. **Constructivism and Role of Culture**: Qin’s work is often associated with constructivism, a theory in international relations that emphasizes the role of ideas, norms, and culture in shaping state behavior. He argues that international relations are socially constructed through these elements, rather than being driven solely by material factors like economic or military power.

4. **Chinese School of International Relations**: Qin is a proponent of developing a “Chinese School” of international relations theory, which incorporates Chinese philosophical traditions and historical experiences. This approach aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of China’s foreign policy and its role in world affairs.

5. **Harmony and Coexistence**: Consistent with traditional Chinese philosophy, Qin often emphasizes the concept of harmony in international relations. He advocates for a world order based on coexistence and mutual respect among different nations and cultures, as opposed to dominance or hegemony.

6. **Pragmatism in Foreign Policy**: Qin’s philosophy also reflects a pragmatic approach to foreign policy, recognizing the importance of adapting to changing international dynamics and pursuing flexible strategies to achieve national interests.

Overall, Qin Yaqing’s political philosophy represents a significant effort to integrate Chinese philosophical traditions and contemporary international relations theory, offering a distinctive perspective on global politics and China’s role within it.

Critique of atomism

This is a matter of ontology, a matter of what model we use for the world

Westerners see society as made up of individuals and international relations as made up by states which are modeled on sovereign individuals
Cf. Thatcher’ — “there is no such thing as society”

Cf. the problem of anarchy

everyone is thinking of themselves and no one is thinking of the system as a whole
this is an atomistic view

Relationism

as an alternative to atomism

Relationships are more fundamental than individual units

there is a relationship ontology, not a model that organizes entities but relationships
the units are empty vessels that are filled with meaning as the come to form relationships

Compare a game of Go, weiqi

围 (wéi) means “to surround” or “encircle,” and 棋 (qí) means “chess” or “board game”
all the pieces are similar but derive their power and importance from their place on the board
that is, their relation to all other pieces

Confucius: The five relationships

According to Confucius, there are five relationships that matter –

between father and son
ruler and subject
man and wife
older and younger brother
between friends

They all have mutual obligations. There are things you must do for each other

they are all unequal (maybe not friend/friend … ), but they are not relationships of exploitation and servitude
these are relationship of mutual concern and care

A relational society

Society is made up of these relationships — not of individuals

Cf. Thatcherite point – there is no society here either
instead there is only this network
all you see are individuals with names and faces with whom you have an actual relationship

Forget about society and care about your relationships

There is no idea of a “civil sphere” or “civic virtue”
you have no generalized duties towards others
China as a “low trust” society

Cf. the way Chinese cities look:

Fei Xiaotong on society (From the Soil)

Chinese anthropologist and sociologist

Chinese social relations operate through networks of personal relationships
the self is at the center and a decreasing level of closeness as one moves outward from the center

The moral order is built from the bottom (Zhao)

The world as built from the bottom in moral terms, just as it is built from the top politically

the world should be organized according to father/son relationships.
hierarchical, but with care and concern

Becoming, not Being

Nothing ever is a certain way, but everything is in the process of becoming

The process is initiated and you go along for the ride, go with the flow

everything is in a state of being born

Policy implications:

good statesmanship is a matter of learning to understand the logic of the process and adjusting yourself to it

Institutions started for one purpose may end up serving a totally different purpose

they are started for one reason but you never know in which direction they are going

Cf. Chinese dragons

always moving and always shifting shape

Or like Chinese ink painting

not showing shapes, but showing movement and shape change

Or compare Sunzi

how you wait for the right opportunity, make the process work for you, exploit weaknesses in your opponent

The mutuality of opposites

The Western view is that we define yourselves through difference

We are what we are not — “othering” etc
the logic of in-groups and out-groups
the dialectic of thesis and anti-thesis resulting in a synthesis
cf. the “clash of civilizations”

Chinese philosophy emphasizes the similarities in opposites and the opposites in similarities

day is not the opposite of night, but contains it
peace contains war and war contains peace
they are being transformed into each other and they are being transformed together

The ability to live with contradictions

Legalism and Confucianism
communism and capitalism
etc

The logic of Yin and Yang

the self in the other and the other in the self
not the little dot in the field of opposite color

Policy implications

mediates antagonisms and force us to look for common solutions
we require each other
there is much that unites us

Or compare Sunzi’s advice on the logic of warfare:

not two massive armies crashing into each other
what in the enemy can make them submit to you without a fight?
learn about yourself in order to learn about the enemy

Harmony

Difference is not a problem but a requirement

harmony is not a question of everyone being the same or doing the same thing

Examples:

you cannot cook a dish with only one ingredient or play music with only one tone
the body wouldn’t function if it wasn’t make up of different body parts

Things must be different but they must be synchronized to fit together

you can synchronize from above or there can be self-synchronization.
cf. laissez-faire and anarchist self-governance
the ruler as a conductor — Confucius and the idea of li …

“Civilization” as a way to synchronize people

cooking the barbarians
something similar happened in other imperial systems

Power

How power is not a resource or an entity

it is not something that you “have”

Instead,

power emerges in relationships and in your ability to take advantage of processes
cf. guanxi networks — cultivating connections
think long-term

In order to gain power

look for a way to influence the process
it is not a matter of putting a gun to people’s heads but instead finding a way to influence the direction of a current, the lay of the land

Sunzi on the importance of the shape of the battlefield

equivalent to the Legalist emphasis on the legal framework
this is the frame that will determine how the game is played
set up the incentive structure
build the pachinko machine (OK, this is a Japanese example)

Practical implications

Ideas like these have been translated into a number of actual policies

organize the system according to your rules
even if it takes a very long time
you have to be patient

Belt and Road

building infrastructure—roads, railways, ports—that connects the peripheral states with the neo-imperial center
the Chinese are once again making efforts to civilize the barbarians—encouraging foreigners to learn Chinese and to study Chinese culture

Confucius institutes

Non-profit educational organizations established by the Chinese government to promote Chinese language, culture, and understanding of China in foreign countries

typically set up in partnership with universities and educational institutions outside China
offer language courses, cultural events, and academic exchanges and aim to strengthen cultural and educational ties between China and other countries

Criticism

primarily due to concerns related to academic freedom, censorship, and potential influence by the Chinese government.

China in Africa

Infrastructure development and investment
Trade relations
Debt financing: China has provided extensive loans to African countries to fund infrastructure projects and other development initiatives. This has led to concerns about debt sustainability and a potential “debt trap” for some African nations, where they may struggle to repay these loans and become overly dependent on Chinese financing.
Cultural and educational exchanges: China has been promoting cultural and educational exchanges with Africa, offering scholarships for African students to study in China, establishing Confucius Institutes to teach Chinese language and culture, and fostering people-to-people exchanges between the two regions.
Political and military cooperation: China has been actively involved in peacekeeping missions and providing military support and training to African countries. China has also established its first overseas military base in Djibouti, a strategic location in the Horn of Africa.
Public health and medical assistance