The Western system is quite unique
Problem
The only reason we talk about it:
And yet
That is,
We talked about the history of these systems last week
there were at least 6 different systems
Today:
What are we looking for?
Not even “international relations”
Not all cases leave many traces
Test a theoretical issue:
Counter-intuitive since war is a time of destruction
A lot of economic change
A lot of cultural change too
the origins of
Also dynamic
Writing in 1949 — establish world history on a new basis — cf. the founding of Unesco
“It is to be found in the period around 500 BC, in the spiritual process that occurred between 800 and 200 BCE”
Subject things to examination which previously were taken for granted
The age of prophets
The ability to compare
The court of each king tried to impress, and outdo, the other
Wandering scholars – holy men and political advisers –
The competitive international systems were market places of ideas
You had to be a part of the Axial age
Yet the whole thing is admittedly difficult to explain
A theory of statecraft
Similar to Machiavelli in Europe
Assumptions:
Laws are supreme and apply equally to all individuals, including rulers
Autocratic centralized control
Collective responsibility and punishment
Utilitarian approach to governance
Meritocratic bureaucracy
Militarism and expansionism
Han Feizi (韓非)
Shang Yang (商鞅)
Li Si (李斯)
Han Feizi:
Shang Yang:
Named after Kong Fuzi (孔夫子, “Master Kong”)
Confucianism is not a religion in the traditional sense
Ren (仁, “Benevolence” or “Humaneness”)
Li (礼, “Ritual” or “Proper Conduct”)
Xiao (孝, “Filial Piety”)
Yi (义, “Righteousness”)
Zhi (智, “Wisdom”)
Junzi (君子, “Gentleman” or “Noble Person”)
1. Ruler and subject
2. Father and son
3. Elder brother and younger brother
4. Husband and wife
5. Friend and friend
Each relationship involves a hierarchy (except in the case of friends) where there are defined roles and mutual obligations
Influence on politics and education
Quite easy to make fun of:
Confucianism has shaped East Asian societies by influencing their attitudes toward education, work, and governance. While it faced suppression during various periods of history, such as the Cultural Revolution in China, Confucian values have seen a resurgence in popularity in many parts of Asia and remain a fundamental part of the region’s cultural fabric. Confucian values are often cited as underlying principles behind the “Asian work ethic,” the value placed on education, respect for authority, and community-oriented social values.
Legalism ultimately contributed to the unification of China under the Qin Dynasty, the first imperial dynasty of China. However, the Qin Dynasty’s reliance on Legalist principles is also cited as a key reason for its swift collapse, as the harshness of its laws and the brutality of its enforcement led to widespread discontent and rebellion. Despite its decline as a formal ideology after the Qin Dynasty, Legalist ideas continued to influence Chinese governance, particularly in the realms of law and central administrative control.
The Warring States period ended with the establishment of the first Chinese Empire in 221 BCE. It was the state of Qin that eventually emerged victorious and Qin Shi Huang, its ruler, established himself as the first emperor of China. Qin Shi Huang made the Legalist philosophers into his advisers and ruled the country in accordance with their ruthless suggestions. He ordered all books to be burned since he wanted people to have no knowledge of a time before his own rule and he buried those scholars alive who disagreed with him. Legalism has inspired Chinese leaders ever since.
The teachings of the Legalists have served Chinese nationalists in much the same fashion. In the nineteenth-century, China was weak and unable to defend itself against Western incursions, and during the subsequent one hundred years the country was constantly harassed and humiliated. Many blamed Confucianism for these failures. Kongzi’s ideas may have worked well for an all-powerful empire, went the argument, but they work far less well for a country confronting a militarily superior enemy. The ideas of the Legalists seemed far better suited to the times. In the last decades of the nineteenth-century, proponents of the so called “Self-Strengthening Movement” looked for ways to enrich the country and strengthen the army. Western technology should be combined with a Chinese spirit. We should use the tools of the West to stand up against the West.
Chairman Mao, the leader of the Communist Party which came to power in 1949, was a great fan of the Legalist authors and he explicitly sought to model himself on Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor. “Qin Shi Huang only buried 460 scholars alive,” as Mao put it, “while we have buried 46,000 scholars.” Mao launched campaigns to criticize Confucius and to eliminate his continued influence over Chinese life. The aim was to abolish the “Four Olds” — old customs, old culture, old habits, and old ideas. Clearly, for these purposes, Legalism was not considered “old” at all, but instead a useful tool of statecraft. Subsequent Chinese leaders have continued to employ Legalist techniques, for example in suppressing the Uyghurs, a Muslim minority in western China.
The claim that Mao Zedong’s rule exhibited aspects of Legalism is an assertion that connects to a broader understanding of Chinese philosophical and political history. Legalism is a philosophy that emphasizes strict adherence to law, centralized control, and the use of punishment to maintain order and the power of the state. It became prominent in the Qin dynasty under the first emperor, Qin Shi Huang, and was characterized by its pragmatic and often harsh methods of governance.
Mao Zedong’s governance had several characteristics that might be considered Legalist in nature:
1. **Authoritarian Control**: Like the Legalists, Mao believed in strong centralized control. His governance style emphasized absolute authority and the centralization of power, reminiscent of Legalist thought which advocates for a strong ruler to maintain order.
2. **Use of Punishment and Fear**: Mao’s regime, particularly during campaigns like the Cultural Revolution and the Great Leap Forward, used harsh punishments to enforce policies and eliminate opposition. The Legalist school also promoted the use of strict punishments as a tool for maintaining control and deterring criminal behavior.
3. **Rule by Law, not by Virtue**: Whereas Confucianism, another major Chinese philosophical tradition, emphasizes the moral virtue of the ruler and the ruled, Legalism places less emphasis on morality and more on the use of laws to govern. Mao’s regime often sidelined moral governance in favor of rigid adherence to the policies and plans of the Communist Party, irrespective of the moral or ethical consequences.
4. **Suppressing Opposition**: Mao, particularly during the Anti-Rightist Movement and the Cultural Revolution, actively suppressed intellectual dissent and political opposition, a practice that is in line with Legalist principles which prioritize state power over individual freedoms and oppose the division of thought that might undermine the ruler’s authority.
5. **Mobilization of the Masses**: Though not a Legalist concept per se, Mao’s ability to mobilize the masses for various political campaigns does mirror the Legalist idea that the state’s power rests on the ability to control and direct its population.
However, it is essential to note that Maoism has its unique characteristics that are distinct from ancient Legalism. Mao Zedong Thought, which is the Chinese Communist Party’s interpretation of Mao’s ideas, includes elements of Marxism-Leninism, which focuses on class struggle, the role of the peasantry, and the eventual goal of a stateless, classless society — all of which are divergent from Legalist thought.
Mao’s use of ideology to reshape Chinese society also stands in contrast to the more pragmatic and less ideological approach of traditional Legalism. Mao’s regime used communist ideology as a rallying cry and form of social control that went beyond the Legalist focus on law and punishment.
In conclusion, while there are parallels that can be drawn between Mao’s rule and the principles of Legalism, such comparisons must be nuanced, taking into account the significant differences between the two as well as the broader spectrum of influences on Mao’s political practices.
The Chinese government’s policies in Xinjiang and their treatment of the Uyghur population can indeed be interpreted through the lens of Legalist philosophy in certain aspects, particularly when considering the emphasis on state control and the use of legal mechanisms to enforce policy. Here are some examples that may resonate with Legalist principles:
1. **Centralized Authority and Control**: Legalism advocates for a strong central authority, and the Chinese government exercises significant control over Xinjiang, which aligns with this aspect of Legalist philosophy.
2. **Surveillance and Law Enforcement**: The extensive use of surveillance technology and law enforcement in Xinjiang to monitor the Uyghur population is a modern method of maintaining control and order, reminiscent of Legalist ideas about the importance of oversight and discipline in governance.
3. **Legal Frameworks to Justify Actions**: The Chinese government has implemented a series of laws and regulations concerning Xinjiang, which it claims are designed to combat extremism and maintain stability. This emphasis on codified law to govern and justify actions has parallels with Legalist thought.
4. **Re-Education and Conformity to State Ideals**: The reported use of re-education camps for Uyghurs has been justified by the Chinese government as a measure to instill social stability and loyalty to the state. Legalists emphasized the need for the populace to adhere to state policies and philosophies.
5. **Punitive Measures**: The reported treatment of the Uyghurs, including allegations of harsh punishments and detainment without due process, can be seen as a contemporary, albeit controversial, parallel to the Legalist use of punishment as a tool for social control.
6. **Assimilation and Homogenization**: Legalists might argue for the importance of a homogenous society to prevent dissent and ensure order. The efforts to assimilate Uyghur culture into a dominant Han Chinese cultural paradigm could be seen as a reflection of this approach.
It’s crucial to acknowledge that such comparisons have limitations and should be approached critically. The application of ancient philosophies to modern-day governance is not straightforward and can oversimplify complex socio-political issues. Legalism in ancient China was a product of its time, and contemporary policies should be evaluated within their current historical, political, and social context.
Furthermore, the Chinese government’s actions in Xinjiang are subject to considerable international scrutiny and criticism. Human rights organizations and several governments have accused China of human rights abuses against the Uyghurs, including forced labor, cultural erasure, and other forms of repression. The assessment of these actions as Legalist should not be interpreted as an endorsement or justification but rather as one angle from which to view the underlying philosophies that might be influencing policy decisions.
Xi Jinping on “the rule of law”
In the Chinese tradition, anarchy will always mean something different than it does to Western IR theorists. Even if the world is divided into separate, and constantly feuding, states, there is always an underlying harmony that is waiting to be realized. This was often expressed in terms of the complementarity between yin and yang. Although they are opposite to each other, yin always requires yang and yang requires yin. Passivity requires activity, darkness requires light, and men and women require each other. States require each other too and the object of statecraft and diplomacy is to find this unity and to develop it.
also known as Sun Tzu
In addition to these Legalist tracts, books were written on matters of military strategy and tactics. The Chinese like to talk about the “Seven Military Classics” – the seven must-read manuals on how to make war. The most famous of these is Sunzi bingfa, Sunzi’s Art of War. Sunzi was a general and political thinker who worked as an advisor to the king of the kingdom of Wu in the sixth century BCE. As his Art of War explains, the goal of warfare is to outmaneuver one’s enemies rather than to confront them in all-out battles. A successful general understands the importance of flexibility, surprise, and knows how to exploit the weaknesses of his opponents. He must control the battlefield and bide his time. By means of all sorts of underhanded tactics he will deceive the enemy and make him make mistakes. The best victories are those won without much of a fight.
It is considered one of the most profound and influential works on strategy and conflict resolution, transcending its military origins and often being adapted for insights into areas such as business tactics and legal strategy.
The importance of intelligence, the unpredictability of warfare, the value of flexibility in tactics, and the necessity of a deep understanding of one’s own strengths and weaknesses, as well as those of the adversary
1. **Laying Plans (计, Jì):** This chapter stresses the importance of strategy, planning, and decision-making based on moral law, heaven, earth, the commander, method, and discipline.
2. **Waging War (作战, Zuòzhàn):** It discusses the economic considerations of warfare, such as the cost of war and the importance of speed in achieving swift victory.
3. **Attack by Stratagem (谋攻, Móugōng):** The text argues that the best policy is to defeat the enemy without fighting, and it prioritizes winning through strategy over the use of force.
4. **Tactical Dispositions (军形, Jūnxíng):** This part outlines the importance of positioning in military strategy. The effective use of defensive and offensive positions can lead to victory.
5. **Use of Energy (兵势, Bīngshì):** It illustrates the concept of directing momentum and the timing of strikes in coordination with the movement of troops.
6. **Weak Points and Strong (虚实, Xūshí):** Sun Tzu highlights the importance of exploiting weaknesses and strengths in both the enemy’s and one’s own positions.
7. **Maneuvering (军争, Jūnzhēng):** The chapter deals with the dynamics of direct and indirect maneuvering and the adaptation to the enemy’s movements and intentions.
8. **Variation in Tactics (九变, Jiǔbiàn):** Flexibility and adaptability in tactics are crucial, and leaders must be prepared to adjust their strategies as conditions change.
9. **The Army on the March (行军, Xíngjūn):** It describes the signs and portents a commander must observe in the movements and appearance of troops.
10. **Terrain (地形, Dìxíng):** Understanding the terrain and its implications for conflict is vital for planning military operations.
11. **The Nine Situations (九地, Jiǔdì):** The treatise categorizes terrain into nine types, each with specific properties that affect how battles should be conducted.
12. **The Attack by Fire (火攻, Huǒgōng):** Sun Tzu discusses the use of fire as a weapon and the five ways to conduct fire attacks strategically.
13. **The Use of Spies (用间, Yòngjiān):** The final chapter emphasizes the importance of intelligence and espionage in warfare. Knowing the enemy’s plans and movements through the use of spies is paramount for securing victory.
“The Art of War” has had a lasting impact on military strategy and has been widely studied and applied in various competitive domains worldwide. Its philosophical underpinnings provide insights into managing conflicts and achieving success in challenging endeavors.
The book inspired Admiral Togo Heihachiro, the hero of the war of 1904-05, where Japan unexpectedly defeated Russia. This was the first time since Ghengis Khan in the fourteenth-century that an Eastern country had defeated a Western.
The Art of War was subsequently used in courses at Japanese universities, and here it was read by students from all over Asia who had come to Japan to study. Many saw it as a manual for how “Asian wisdom” can be used to conquer the material superiority of the West.
Ho Chi Minh, the leader of the Vietnamese independence movement, translated Sunzi and the book was subsequently used as a manual on guerrilla warfare. Its principles were applied by Võ Nguyên Giáp, the Vietnamese general who defeated the French army at the battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954.
This was another spectacular Asian victory over a European country and it boosted the morale of independence movements around the world.
The Janapada period was also a time when sacred Hindu texts were composed. The Mahabharata is a sprawling epic of 100,000 verses and some 1.8 million words, and when performed it takes several days to complete. The central story concerns the conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, two branches of the same family who fought for control of the kingdom of Hastinapura, a janapada just north of today’s New Delhi. In a subsection of the work – known as the Bhagavad Gita – the god Krishna, in the guise of a charioteer, engages prince Arjuna in conversation. A great battle is about to take place and Arjuna faces a moral dilemma. He is a Pandavas, but in order to defend the interests of his family he must make war on his relatives, teachers and friends, and he doesn’t know what to do. But as Krishna explains, it is his duty to go to war and to fulfill the obligations that come with his social position. Violence is sometimes necessary in order to protect the social order. But Krishna teaches many other things as well: the virtue of selflessness, the path of self-realization, the importance of religious devotion and non-attachment to worldly goods. In the end, he explains, our individual souls are all a part of the universal soul which is the ultimate nature of reality. The Pandavas won the the battle, by the way, despite being the weaker party, and once in power the Pandava brothers restored peace and prosperity to the kingdom.
Attributed to Kautilya (also known as Chanakya)
Composition and Structure
The treatise is organized into 15 books, which are further divided into 180 chapters, containing about 6,000 sutras, or aphoristic statements. Here is a broader look at its structure and content:
The Arthashastra is rooted in the tradition of realpolitik
Economic prosperity is seen as the foundation of the state
The Arthashastra provides an example. Although this text was widely known and read in ancient times, it was later lost and only rediscovered in 1905. To Indian nationalists who were fighting the British at the time, this rediscovery came as a revelation. The Arthashastra proves, they argued, that we Indians are nothing like the way we have been portrayed by Westerners and the way we have come to think of ourselves. We are not “meek” and “spiritual,” but can be just as cynical and ruthless as any European. The Arthashastra is a book for the ksatriya class of warriors – for the ksatriyas of the past and the ksatriyas of today. It will teach us how to get rid of the British.
However, in the 1920s and 30s, the Arthashastra once again receded from view. Mahatma Gandhi explicitly rejected the ksatriya ethos and adopted instead the non-violent teachings of the Jains. In order to truly liberate ourselves from the British, he argued, we cannot let them turn us into killers. After independence in 1947 the Arthashastra continued to be neglected. In 1950s and 60s, the political discourse was shaped by Jawaharlal Nehru, the country’s first prime minister. Nehru came from a family of brahmins and to him the Arthashastra was far too obsessed with the attainment of various worldly goods. However, the text was once again rediscovered. In the 1980s critics of India’s experiments with state-led economic development began reading it. To them it was obvious that Indian-style socialism had failed and that the Arthashastra contained arguments for a more unfettered form of capitalism. Since the early 2000s, however, the book has mainly been invoked by Hindu nationalists. Their rhetoric reminds you of the nationalists who first read the book in 1905, but now it is not the British who are the enemies but instead other domestic religions and ethnic groups, above all the Muslim minority in the country.
Hindu nationalists have also read the Mahabharata. The conflict between the two branches of the same family, they explain, provides plenty of practical advice for today’s politicians. Consider, for example, the importance of forming alliances. The Pandavas were weaker than the Kauravas but since they paid more attention to matters of diplomacy they eventually tipped the balance of power in their favor. Their cause also seemed more just since they always emphasized the moral quality of their choices. Enlisting Krishna as an advisor was also a smart move. And the Pandavas worked much better together as a team. By contrast, there was always more infighting among the Kauravas. Whether you need to read a 2,500 year old epic in order to derive such lessons is obvious perhaps, but at least it allows contemporary Indian nationalists to argue that they are basing their foreign policy on their own sources and political traditions.
In India the artha taught in the Arthashastra was only one of three main forms of knowledge
For a successful life we need to master artha, dharma and kama
Siddhartha Gautama was one of the holy men wannabes who moved from one Janapada to another looking for spiritual wisdom. Once he found it – in Bodh Gaya in the state of Magadha – he came to be referred to as “the Buddha,” meaning “the enlightened one.” Before long he began preaching to kings, courts and well as to ordinary people. The world is an illusion which we must liberate ourselves from, the Buddha taught. Peace can only come from renunciation, from giving up on both worldly power and sensual pursuits. Today Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in the world with some 500 million followers.
A way to understand and cope with the suffering
That is,
avoiding both extreme indulgence and severe asceticism
The sangha, or monastic community
Moreover, Buddhism’s emphasis on ahimsa (non-violence) is a direct counter to the violent conflicts of the time. This principle was not only a personal ethical guideline but also had social and political implications. It suggested that true power and happiness came from inner peace and the cultivation of compassion, rather than from the conquest of enemies. In many ways, the spread of Buddhism can be seen as the spread of a peace strategy, as you suggest, promoting non-violent resolution of conflict and the development of internal resources to deal with life’s challenges.
The renunciatory aspect of Buddhism, where individuals were encouraged to leave behind their household life and social obligations, can be interpreted as turning away from the world of wars and strife. This turning away is not necessarily an act of escapism but a profound statement about what is truly valuable. By stepping out of the cycle of ambition and retribution, Buddhists were engaging in a form of silent protest against the values driving society towards conflict.
As Buddhism evolved, it also developed a complex relationship with the ruling powers. Kings and emperors like Ashoka the Great adopted Buddhism and helped it spread across Asia. In this case, the religion provided a cosmopolitan framework for governance that was useful in unifying diverse peoples and cultures within emerging empires. Buddhism’s message of peace and ethical governance resonated with rulers who sought to legitimize their power through dharma (moral order) rather than just brute force.
King Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire was his most famous disciple. At first a cruel and merciless ruler, Ashoka changed his ways after the carnage at the Battle of Kalinga, 261 BCE, in which some 100,000 soldiers died. Filled with remorse, he renounced violence and shifted his focus from foreign conquests to ways of promoting the welfare of his people. And he promoted kindness to animals too, banning animal sacrifices and encouraging people to adopt a vegetarian lifestyle. He also did much to propagate the new religion beyond northern India.
The Jains rejected the logic of competition and advocated self-help and solidarity
They believed in non-violence – known as ahimsa — and showed respect for all living beings no matter how insignificant
Jainist monks would gently brush the ground in front of them to make sure that they didn’t step on any ants or worms
The Jains were vegetarians of course and would avoid eating root vegetables too since pulling them out of the ground kills the plants
Founded by Vardhamana Mahavira
the practice of non-violence was not merely a personal ethical guideline
Jain communities
You want me to become like you
Gandhi: Satyagraha
As a political tool
Influenced
Founded by Mozi during the Warring States period in China
stark contrast with
Mozi criticized the costly nature of war
By promoting universal love, societies could reduce conflict
Mohists were known to offer services to states under attack, helping to defend cities with fortifications and strategic planning
while Mohism was against aggressive warfare, it recognized the need for self-defense and the protection of communities.
Nothing is permanent, the Buddha had taught; the world is an illusion. In Sengoku Japan these were not philosophical truths as much as everyone’s daily reality. We are here today and gone tomorrow. But realizing as much should not fill us with dread but instead with a sense of freedom. This at least was the teachings of Zen, a version of Buddhism which emerged in this period. According to Zen aesthetics, what matters are not objects but instead the empty spaces between them. What counts is not the thoughts you have in your head but your actions. If you can fully capture the moment, you have already lived for ever. Zen aesthetics has influenced all Japanese art forms but also martial arts such as archery and swordsmanship. By emptying their minds before a military engagement, warriors could react flexibly and fearlessly. To a successful archer, bow, arrow and target are one.
113. “Bushido is to enter a ‘death frenzy’ (shini-gurui). Even dozens of men cannot kill a man in a frenzied state already determined to die.” Lord Naoshige said this. One cannot accomplish great exploits in a normal frame of mind. Just become insane and desperate to die. In the Way of the warrior, contemplating matters too deeply will cause you to fall behind others. Don’t think of loyalty or filial piety, just enter a frenzy to perish in shidō.2 Loyalty and filial piety will manifest as a matter of course in the death frenzy.
159. A retainer should adore serving his lord. It is a timorous coward who winces at an important task and withdraws because of the danger. If you meet with failure in your mission despite your best efforts, it will be lauded as an honorable death.
49. Realize that “the time is now,” come up with a plan to meet any situation in a flash, and carve it in your heart. There is a saying: “It is curious how people aimlessly negotiate their way through life.” The Way of the warrior entails a rehearsal of death morning after morning, picturing one’s life ending here or there, and imagining the most wonderful way of dying. Decide adamantly that one’s heart is in death. This is all a samurai needs to concern himself with. It is demanding but totally achievable. Nothing is impossible.
If you become vexed, your luck as a warrior will dry up; if you are unable to serve when needed owing to a bad reputation, then you belong nowhere. Instead of living in disgrace and spending the rest of your life in the doldrums, you are better off just cutting open your stomach. If you aren’t inclined to give up your life, and choose to keep making excuses about seppuku being a “meaningless death,” you may live five more years, one or two decades at most. Nonetheless, your peers will disparage you, and you will live on in ignominy. This dishonor will continue after your death, and your descendants will inherit your shameful reputation. They will suffer humiliation just because they are related to you, even though they are innocent of wrongdoing. You will also bring disgrace to the memory of your lord.
The Bushido principles of Sengoku Japan played a similar role for Japanese nationalists. In the nineteenth-century, Japan too was harassed by foreigners and the question was how to respond. In the 1880s, the main response was to Westernize the country as quickly as possible. Everything Japanese should be rejected and everything Western should be embraced. Before long, however, the policy shifted. The Imperial Rescript on Education, 1890, aimed to inculcate a sense of loyalty, morality, and nationalism among Japanese citizens. It emphasized bushido ideals such as unquestioning loyalty to one’s superiors, discipline, and the importance of fulfilling of one’s duties. In the 1930s, these ideals were invoked by the authorities as Japan made war in China, and they were invoked again in the Second World War. The Japanese pilots who went on suicide missions to destroy American warships were modern day samurai devoted to honor and self-sacrifice. A few soldiers who never heard the news of Japan’s defeat, continued fighting for several decades after 1945. The last samurai, Hiroo Onoda, carried out a lonely guerrilla war in the jungles of the Philippines until 1974, when he finally surrendered at the orders of his war-time commander.
Ritualistic warfare refers to conflicts that are conducted according to certain social conventions or rituals and often within a context that limits the scale and scope of violence. These forms of conflict are generally marked by symbolic rather than purely strategic goals, and they were more common in various cultures before the modern era. Here are some examples:
The Aztecs engaged in this form of ritual warfare primarily with the goal of capturing prisoners for religious sacrifice rather than territorial conquest. These wars were fought at prearranged times and places, and they had a ceremonial aspect that was as important as the military one.
Although not warfare in the traditional sense, the ritual ballgame played by pre-Columbian societies of Mesoamerica had deep religious and political significance. It is thought that the games could be used as a substitute for warfare, with the fate of cities or leaders sometimes resting on the outcome.
Samurai Duels and Battles in Feudal Japan
The samurai followed a strict code of honor known as bushido, which dictated how and when they could fight. Battles were sometimes preceded by formalized challenges and single combats.